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/ .* 



ANTHON'S SERIES OF CLASSICAL WORKS 

FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



From William A. Duer, LL.D., President of Columbia 
College, in the City of New-York. 

Columbia College, N. Y., May 4, 1838. 
Messrs. Hakper & Brothers, 

Gentlemen — I have examined the first three volumes issued from 
your press, of a series of classic v^^orks now in the course of preparation 
by Professor Anthon of this college, v^nth a view to furnish accurate and 
uniform editions of all the classical authors of antiquity read in our col- 
leges and schools, to be printed from the best texts, and accompanied 
by such a commentary in the English language as may effectually aid 
the student in overcoming the difficulties of the original, and at the same 
time open to him the wide field of mental disciplme and culture afforded 
by classical pursuits and the auxiliary studies connected with these. 

From the manner in which this undertaking has been so far executed, 
as well as from the established character and reputation of Professor An- 
thon as a scholar, his experience as an instructer, and the accuracy and 
judgment previously evinced by him as an editor and commentator, I 
can entertain no doubt of the success of the enterprise, so far as his ed- 
itorial labours and your own skill and experience as publishers are con- 
cerned ; and I trust that, from the increasing value of classical studies in 
the estimation of the public, this judicious and spirited effort to facilitate 
and promote so important a branch of education will be duly appreciated 
and liberally rewarded. 

I remain, gentlemen, 

Your obedient servant, 

W. A. Duer. 



From Wilbur Fisk, D.D., President of the Wesleyan 
University, at Middletown, Conn. 

Messrs. Harper & Brothers, 

Gentlemen — I am highly gratified to notice that you have com- 
menced a series of the classics under the editorial supervision of that 
accompUshed scholar, Professor Anthon of Columbia College. No man 
in our country is better qualified for this office than Professor Anthon. 
To show in Vv^hat estimation he is held in England as a classical scholar, 
it need only be known that an edition of his " Horace" has been pub- 
lished in London, and the publishers informed me that the entire edition 
had met with a ready sale ; showing that, notwithstanding the numerous 
editions of this standard work by the first scholars in England, the credit 
of the work by our American scholar had carried it successfully through 
the English market, and that, too, by virtue of its intrinsic merit. Your 
editions of his Caesar, Cicero, and Sallust are now before me, and show 
that there is no falling off from the reputation of the edition of Horace. 
The copious notes and commentaries cannot fail to shed a flood of light 
upon the mind of the young student, and will contribute much, I trust, to 
foster in the rising generation of scholars a taste for the ancient classics. 

Yours respectfully, 

May 8, 1838. Wilbur Fisk. 



2 TESTIMONIALS. 

From H. Humphrey, D.D., President of Amherst College, 

AT Amherst, Mass. 

Messrs. Harper, 

Gentlemen — I am very happy to see that you have undertaken to 
furnish uniform editions of the Latin classics for the use of our gram- 
mar schools and higher seminaries of learning. Professor Anthon de- 
serves and will receive the thanks of the public for the labour which he 
has so judiciously and successfully bestowed upon Sallust, Caesar, and 
Cicero. The explanatory notes or commentaries are more copious and 
comprehensive than those of any other edition I have seen, and much 
better adapted to the wants of young students. Among the most valu- 
able of these notes are those which divert attention to the beautiful uses 
of the moods and tenses, and explain the delicate shades of meaning and 
peculiar beauties that depend upon them, which our language often ex- 
presses imperfectly and with difficulty, and which young learners rarely 
regard. The explanations of the force and meaning of the particles are 
also very useful. 

The historical, geographical, and other indexes are also highly valua- 
ble, furnishing the student, as they do, with felicitous illustrations of the 
text, and much general information. 

The text seems to be settled with much care and ability. The edi- 
tions adopted as the basis or referred to as authority are those in the 
highest repute among scholars. The typographical execution is very 
line, and this is a high merit. The wretched reprints of foreign editions 
of the classics, got up in cheap offices, on wretched paper, with incom- 
petent proof-readers and no editors, to which, until within a very few 
years, our students have been universally condemned, have, by taking 
them young, been as successful in making them uncertain and inaccu- 
rate scholars as if that had been one of the main objects of the publish- 
ers. School books of all kinds, instead of being the worst (as they often 
are), should be the most carefully printed books we have. 

H. Humphrey. 

May 15, 1838. 



From the Christian Advocate and Journal. 

Anihon's Cczsar. — It is with great pleasure that we perceive that the 
Messrs. Harper are continuing their excellent series of American classics, 
under the authority and editorship of that erudite and mature scholar, 
Professor Anthon. This is the third of the series, professing to be for 
the use of schools and colleges, but, in truth, so correct in text, so elabo- 
rate in commentaries, so vastly superior, in clearness, depth, and variety 
of information, to any which have gone before, that no man, however 
thoroughly imbued with classic lore, has any right to consider these ad- 
mirable works beneath his notice, or suited only to the half-formed intel- 
lect of young beginners. " Sallust" and " Cicero" preceded ** Caesar ;" 
and though excellent, were neither of them, we conceive, quite equal to 
the present work, on which no pains have been spared that the most 
painful research and the keenest habits of literary disquisition can ac- 
complish. In addition to a complete series of notes, explanatory and 
critical, it possesses three copious indexes of history, antiquities, and 



TESTIMONIALS. 3 

geography, the first book of the Greek paraphrase (hitherto unpubUshed 
in America), and a set of well-executed plans and drawings of battles, 
sieges, &c., exceedingly well qualified to elucidate any obscurities of 
the text. We hail its appearance, and shall look anxiously for its suc- 
cessors, as a most valuable addition to the literary treasures of our country. 



From the New-York Courier and Enquirer. 

CcEsar^s Commentaries on the Gallic War, cf-c. By Charles AnthoUj 
LL.D. — Harper & Brothers, Cliff-street — Being the third of their edi- 
tion of American school and collegiate classics, has just made its appear- 
ance. The profound scholar under whose supervision these excellent 
works are put forth to the world is as well known on the Continent of 
Europe as he is on our own shores ; and is, perhaps, the only son of 
America who has ever attained that degree of fame for classical attain- 
ments which should constitute him an authority second, if second, only 
to the great names of English or of German criticism — the Heynes and 
Bruncks, the Elmsleys and the Porsons, and the Bentleys, who have de- 
voted so much time and labour to minute investigation and clear exposi- 
tion of the great works of old. The Sallust, Cicero, and Caesar are not, 
perhaps, quite equal, nor, indeed, are they intended to be so, in deep 
lore, to his great work, the Horace, which is, perhaps, the best, decidedly 
the most lucid and explanatory edition ever published of Rome's lyric 
bard and satirist ; but they are eminently adapted to the minds of the 
young ; nor need the ripest scholar blush to own that he has reaped both 
profit and amusement from their accurate and varied notes. Of the three 
latter publications, the Caesar is in all respects the best, and is unques- 
tionably superior to any pre-existing copy of the journal of the great cap- 
tain, orator, and statesman of earth's most mighty empire. 



From the New-York Evening Star. 

The Harpers have just issued from their press, nothing daunted by the 
evil times, an edition of Ccesafs Commentaries, edited by Professor 
Anthon of Columbia College, which, in every point of view, surpasses 
anything that has yet been published of the works of the great dictator. 
The type is beautiful, both Latin and Greek, for we have-not only the 
complete journal in the grave, chaste, and even style of the tongue in 
which it was written, but the first book of the Greek Paraphrase, a work 
not generally known, and both curious as a matter of philological interest 
and useful as elucidatory to the text. The notes are all that notes can 
be ; copious but not diffuse, learned but not pedantic, luminous, and re- 
plete with varied and most entertaining knowledge. Three indexes, his- 
torical, archcBological, and geographic, are appended, and add much, as 
do the clear cuts of sieges, battles, camps, and military works, to the 
utility and beauty of the book. The series, which commenced with 
Cicero and Sallust, is ably maintained before us, and will, we under- 
stand, be continued through all the classics usually read in schools and 
colleges. In conclusion we can only say that, if they meet with the 
support they merit, neither the editor nor publishers will meet a small 
reward. 



4 TESTIMONIALS. 

From the New- York American. 

Ctzsar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, with the First Book of the 
Greek Para-phrase. By Charles Anlhon, LL.D. New- York : Harper 
& Brothers. — This is a beautiful edition, with very valuable notes, by a 
hand every way competent. It forms a most valuable addition to the 
stock of useful classics published by the Harpers. It is on the same 
plan with the Sallust and Cicero, edited by Professor Anthon, and con- 
tains many valuable corrections from the Greek Paraphrase, which has 
been referred to in all doubtful cases, and the first book of which is ap- 
pended, both as a literary curiosity and an easy introduction to the study 
of that language. 



From the Knickerbocker Magazine. 

CcBsar^s Commentaries on the Gallic War, and the First Book of the 
Greek Paraphrase, with English Njtes, critical and explanatory, Plans 
of Battles^ Sieges, cf-c, and Historical, Geographical, and Archceolngical 
indexes. By Charles Anthon, LL.D. Harper & Brothers, Cliff-street. 
— It is with very sincere pleasure that we perceive that the enterprising 
publishers from the press of whom this very valuable classic issued a 
few weeks since, are turning their attention steadily to the promulgation 
of classical knowledge, through the medium of a series of works edited 
under the supervision of that sound and ripe scholar, Professor Anthon 
of Columbia College. ***-h-*** Jt was, therefore, as 
we have said above, with very sincere pleasure that we became acquainted 
with the determination of the Messrs. Harper, and that we received ev- 
idence and earnest of their good faith in the excellent school editions of 
Sallust and Cicero, which they have previously put forth, and, above all, 
in the work which furnishes the matter for this notice. The Horace of 
the same gentleman, a work displaying the most entire acquaintance with 
his subject, the deepest research, and the soundest judgment, united to a 
severe and practised taste, has already received the stamp of universal 
approbation ; being generally admitted, even on the continent of Europe, 
to be the best existing edition of that poet, and being almost universally 
adopted in the schools and colleges of England. With regard to the 
Sallust and Cicero, they fully equalled, in ability and fitness for that scale 
of intellect to which they were intended to apply, their predecessor ; and 
the Caesar, with its admirable notes, full of all that boys can require and 
of much that men may read with interest and profit ; w4th its indexes, 
clear, comprehensive, and, at the same time, highly entertaining ; with 
Its well-executed plans and sketches, affording admirable illustrations ot 
the text, and with the curious and rarely-published paraphrase, is in no 
degree inferior, or, rather, is so far superior to the earlier numbers of the 
series, that it may safely be pronounced the best schoolbook ever pub- 
lished in this or any other country. The editor and publishers have vied 
with each other ; and, the one in matter, the others in manner, have been 
most eminently successful, and may be most justly proud of their bene- 
ficial labours ; for if he has been termed the most useful member of a 
state who causes two blades of grass to spring up where but one grew 
before, what name shall be applied to him who calls forth two ideas in 
the place of one from that most noble field, when cultivated duly, the 
mind of rational and thinking man. 



A GRAMMAR 



GREEK LANGUAGE, 



Vv'* 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



^ -V 



CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D., 

JAY-PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, 
NEW'YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. 




NEW-YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF-STREET. 



18 38. 



fh 



■^^"^ 






1 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, by 

Charles Anthon, 
in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York. 



55^/ 



TO 



THE REV. WILBUR FISK, D.D., 

PRESIDENT OF THE WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, 

2ri)Cs W!^oxt IS XnscrtteDr 
AS A TRIBUTE OF SINCERE RESPECT 

TO ONE, IN WHOM HUMAN LEARNING IS SO ADMIRABLY BLENDED 

WITH THAT BETTER AND PURER KNOWLEDGE, WITHOITT 

WHICH IT IS COMPARATIVELY VALUELESS. 



PREFACE. 



The author's object, in preparing the present work, was 
to furnish the student with such a view of the leading fea- 
tures in the Grammar of the Greek Language as might prove 
useful to him, not only at the commencement of his career, 
but also during its whole continuance. Nothing has there- 
fore been omitted, the want of which might in any degree 
retard his progress ; and yet, at the same time, the work 
has been brought within such limits as will render it easy 
of reference and not deter from perusal. The best and 
latest authorities have been carefully consulted, and every 
effort has been made to exhibit a concise outline of all the 
leading principles of Greek Philology. Under the head of 
Prosody the author has given merely a brief collection of 
rules, as the larger work on this subject, now in the press, and 
which will appear in a few weeks, will be found to contain 
all that is requisite in this department of instruction. To 
that same work the author has been compelled to transfer 
the remarks on the analogies of the Indo-Germanic tongues, 
which were originally intended to form part of the present 
volume. It was found, as the Grammar advanced towards 
its completion, that the addition of these analogies would 

A2 



VI PREFACE. 

make it too large in size ; and, although a work like the 
present is certainly the true one for such a discussion, 
yet it is hoped that the remarks in question will not be out 
of place even at the end of a work on Greek Prosody. The 
subject of these analogies is a curious and important one, 
and is destined to exert a powerful influence on the future 
prosecution of grammatical studies in both the Greek and 
Latin languages. It is better, therefore, to give it a some- 
what extended consideration, and not curtail it of its fair 
proportions. Ample room will be allowed for the accom- 
plishment of this object in the metrical work to which the 
author has just alluded. 

Columbia College^ May 21 ^ 1838. 



INDEX. 



'KlfLai, '' I clothe myself" 
Elfxl, " I am" . . 
EljLtt, " I go" . . 
'Hfiac, " I sit" . . 
Enclitics . . . 



Feet ..... 
^T^fUf *' I say" . . 
First Aorist Active 

Passive 

Middle 

First Future Active 

Passive 

Middle 

Formation of the Tenses 



PAGE 

Accents 7, 275 

Accusative 36 

, Syntax of . . 243 

Active Voice 92 

Adjectives 48 

Adverbs 194 

.Eolic Dialect 282 

Anapaestic Verse . . . . 270 

Apostrophe 10 

Article 19 

-, Syntax of . . . 229 

Attic Dialect ..... 283 

Augments ...... 101 

Breathings 6 

Cases 18 

Changes of Letters ... 13 

Comparison 67 

Composition, Prosody of . 255 

Conjunctions 202 

Consonants . . . ^ . . 13 

Contracted Verbs .... 139 

Contraction 9 

Dative 37 

, Syntax of .... 241 

Declensions 20 

Deponents 138 

Dialects 281 

Digamma 7, 274 

Diphthongs 3 

Doric Dialect . . . . . 282 ^ Ket>ai, " Hie" 



Genders .... 
Genitive, Syntax of 

Iambic Verse . 
"Irj/LLtj " I send" 
Imperfect Active 

Passive 

Active in jui. 

Passive in fit 



Infinitive, Syntax of 
Ionic Dialect . . 
Irregular Nouns 

Adjectives 

Verbs 

Verbs in fj,t 



PAGE 
164 

89 
158 
164 
279 

267 
167 
108 
116 
119 
108 
117 
119 
108 

18 
236 

269 
161 
108 
115 

156 
156 
245 
282 
43 
63 
170 
158 

165 



Vlll 



INDEX. 



Letters 



Metres . 
Middle Voice 



N added .... 
Nominative and Verb 

Noun 

Numbers . . . 
Numerals . . . 



Participle, Syntax of 
Parts of Speech 
Passive Voice . 

• , Synte 

Patronymics 
Perfect Active . . 

Passive 

Middle . 

Pluperfect Active . 

' Passive 

Middle . 



of 



118 



PAGE 
1 

268 
124 

11 

231 

20 

18 

72 

247 

17 

95 

245 

47 

109 

115 

, 127 

110 

116 

118 



PAOB 

Prepositions 210 

Pronouns 78 

Prosody 251 



Relative, Syntax of . , 

Second Aorist Active 

Passive . 

Middle . , 

Active in (jll , 

Middle in (jll . 



Second Future Active 

Passive . 

Middle . 

Substantive and Adjective 
Syntax ...... 



Verbs 



■ m jLLL 



Vowels 



234 

110 
117 
119 
156 
156 
111 
117 
119 
233 
229 

88 

88 

149 

3 



GREEK GRAMMAR. 





I. THE ALPHABET.! 




The Greek 


alphabet consists 


of twenty-four letters, 


namely : 








A, a, 


"AA0a, 


Alpha, 


a. 


B, p, 6, 


Bf/ra, 


Beta, 


b. 


r,y,/; 


Tdfifxa, 


Gamma, 


g- 


A, 6, 


AeXra, 


Delta, 


d. 


E,e, 


"Ei/;ad2/, 


Epsilon,^ 


e. 


z,f, 


ZrjTa, 


Zeta, 


z. 


H,»?, 


mra, 


Eta, 


e. 


0, ^, 9, 


Qrjra, 


Theta, 


th. 


1,1, 


'loJTa, 


Iota, 


i. 


K, K, 


Kdrma, 


Kappa, 


k. 


A,X, 


Adjjidda, 


Lambda, 


1. 


M, ^, 


Mv, 


Mu, 


m. 


^,v. 


Nt), 


Nu, 


n. 


*-«J b* 


E?, 


Xi, 


X. 


0,0, 


'0^^/^j901^, 


micron,^ 


6. 


n, 7r, 


n?, 


Pi, 


P- 


p, p, 


Tw, 


Rho, 


r. 


i;, (7, (when 


linal, s)4 Ityfia, 


Sigma, 


s. 


T,T, 


Tav, 


Tail, 


t. 


T,v, 


''ri)iX6v, 


Upsilon,^ 


u. 


^,4>, 


m, 


Phi, 


ph. 


^,x, 


XI, 


Chi, 


ch. 


<if,ip, 


^z, 


Psi, 


ps. 


Q, 6), 


^^i2/^£ya, 


Omega, 


6. 



1. Consult Excursus 1, at the end of this volume. 

2. Smooth, or unaspirated e ; so called to distinguish it from H, wliich 
was anciently one of the marks of the rough breathing, or aspirate. 

3. Small 0, to distinguish it from omega Co), or great (i. e., long) o. 

4. The German scholars have introduced the practice of using f at 
the end of syllables likewise, when they make an entire word with which 
another is compounded ; as, dygfievrjc, elgcpspDf irpogetTTOv. But this 
practice, which has not even the authority of MSS. in its favour, cannot 
be systematically introduced without inconvenience to orthography ; and 
it is not agreeable to the genius of the ancients, who were not accustomed 
to separate, by the understanding, the different parts of discourse. 

5. Smooth V, to distinguish it from the aspirated v ('T), which was 
one of the ancient signs of the digamma, and also passed into the Latin 
V, as, ViDi, AivoM. * 



Z PRONUNCIATION- 

II. PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTERS.' 
A, when long, is sounded like the English a in far; 
when short, like the a in fat. 

r, before a vowel, like the hard English g; but before 
another y, and also before fc, y, ^, %, is sounded like ng in 
sing. Thus, dyyeXog, pronounce ang-elos ; dyfcojv, ang-kon, 

E, like the short English e in met. 

Z, like a soft d passing gently* into the sound of z. Thus, 
fao), pronounce d-zao ; fis?iL^G), melid-zo, &c. 
H, like the English a in cane.^ 

0, like the English th in think, 

1, when long, like the English e in me ; when short, like 
the i in pi7i. 

T, like the French u in une, or the German ii. 
X, always guttural, like the German ch in buck. 
£2, like the o in throne, 

PRONUNCIATION OF THE DIPHTHONGS.^ 
A^, like the English adverb aye. 
Av, like the syllable ow in now, 
E^, like the English word eye. 



1. The pronunciation here given is that which has been adopted at the 
institution from which the present work emanates. It is by no means 
offered as accurate in every respect, but merely as giving, in some cases 
an approximation to the ancient sound, and, in others, the result of mod- 
ern, though erroneous, usage. A separate work on this much-contested- 
point will appear at no very distant day. 

2. The true sound of the y before a vowel would appear to have re- 
sembled that of the soft g in the German liegen. 

3. The 7] appears to have had, originally, a middle sound between a 
and e, and the grounds on which this opinion rests are as follows : 1 . 
The contraction of ae and ea into i] ; as, jpaera/., ;^p7/rat, ^aeif, ^y^. 
reixsa, relxVy tiXyOm, akrjdfj. 2. The augment rj, rt, and r)v, from a, at 
and av ; as, ijnovov, yveoa, and 7/v6a, 3. The Doric and ^Eolic change 
of 7] into a ; as, (f>d/ia. Dor. for ^^/i?/ ; irvlay. JEoh for ttvXi]. 

4. The primitive sound of the diphthongs appears to have been a-i 
a-v, e-t, e-v, &c. The pronunciation of av is obtained from the barkin^ 
of the dog {av, av) in Aristophanes, Vesp., 903. The primitive sound 
of OL seems to have resembled the syllables owy in the word snowj^ 
though, of course, with more of a diphthongal sound* 



DIVISION OF LETTERS. O 

Ev, like the English, word yew, 

Oi, like the syllable oy in hoy. 

Ov, like the oo in soorij or the ou in ragout, 

Tl, like the English pronoun we. 

III. DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 

Seven of the letters are vowels, namely, a, e, ?/, t, o^ v, 
u. The remaining seventeen are consonants. 

1. VOWEL-S, 

1. The seven vowels are divided into three classes, 
namely : short, long, and doubtful. Thus, 

Short, £, 0, 
Long, rj, G), 
Doubtful, a, L, V. 

2. The short vowels are those, the pronunciation of which 
occupies the shortest possible time. 

3. The long vowels are those which require in their 
pronunciation twice as much time as the short. 

4. The doubtful are those which can be pronounced both 
as short and long in different words, being short in some 
words and long in others.* 

2. Diphthongs. 

1. The vowels are combined in a variety of ways, two 
and two together, into one sound, and hence are formed the 
diphthongs. 

2. Diphthongs are formed by the union of a hack-voweP 
[a, e, o) Avith a, front-vowel (i, v), producing one sound. 

1. The student must not suppose, from the epithet " doubtful," as ap- 
plied to these vowels, that there is, in every case, something wavering 
and uncertain ik their nature. The meaning is simply this ; the short 
vowel E has its corresponding long vowel rj, and the short vowel o its 
corresponding long vowel o ; but in the case of «, t, v, there is no sep- 
arate vowel'Sign for the long and short quantities, and, therefore, the length 
or shortness of the vowel is to be determined, not by the eye, but by the 
application of some rule. 

2. The sounds of a, e, o, being formed by the organs in the hack part 



4 DIVISION OF LETTERS. 

3. Of the diphthongs, six are proper, where both vowels 
are heard combined into one sound ; and six improper, 
where the sound of one vowel predominates over that of 
the other. 

4. The proper diphthongs are, therefore, at, av, et, ev, oi, 
ov. The improper are a, ^, w, where the i, or second vowel, 
is subscribed, and also ?yv, vt, g)v, which last three are not 
of as common occurrence as a, ^, (*)} 

3. Consonants. 

1. Of the seventeen consonants, nine are mutes, that is, 
letters whereof no distinct sound can be produced without 
the addition of a vowel. 

2. These nine are divided into three classes, namely, 
soft, intermediate, and aspirate. Thus, 

Three soft, tt, k, t. 

Three intermediate, j8, y, 6. 
Three aspirate, cf>, x^ ^• 

3. These, when read perpendicularly, form the three 
orders of mutes, each soft consonant having its correspond- 
ing intermediate and aspirate. Thus, 

TT, P, 0. 

f^^ % X' 

T, d, 6, 

of the mouth, may be called 5flcA;-vowels ; and the sounds of l and v, be- 
ing formed in the front part of the mouth, may be denominated front- 
vowels. 

1. Originally, the a, t?, w were closely allied to ac, ec, oc, and only so 
distinguished, that, in the latter, a, e, and o were sounded of the same 
length with the t ; while, in the former, the long sound of a, e, and o pre- 
ceded, and the i merely followed as a short echo. This accurate pronun- 
ciation, however, appears to have been lost at an early period, even among 
the Greeks themselves, and therefore, at present, we pronounce a, y, am 
in the same way as a, ?;, w ; and the subscribed or underwritten iotaT 
serves as a mere grammatical sign for determining the derivation and fori 
distinguishing the forms. Originally, the l, even m these improper diph-l 
thongs, was written by the side of the other sound, and in the use of cap-| 
itals this practice still obtains. Thus we write adrjg, but "AtdrjCy passina 
over, in either case, the sound of the c. So, again, udij, but, with thd 
capital letter, 'Qi^rj. 



DIVISION OF LETTERS. O 

4. Mutes of the same class must always come together, 
from a principle of euphony. Thus, 

SOFT. INTERMEDIATE. ASPIRATE. 

ebSojiog. eirrd. (pdovog. 

bydoog. outg). £%^o^. 

5. From the organs with which they are pronounced, tt, 
/3, <b are termed labials or lip-letters ; k, y, %, gutturals ; 
and T, (5, ^, dentals. 

6. Four of the consonants are called liquids, namely. A, 
\i^ V, p \ and they are so denominated because, in pronunci- 
ation, they easily flow into other sounds. 

7. These four liquids, together with the sibilant, or hiss- 
ing letter ^, are also called semivowels, because their sound 
can be pretty distinctly perceived without the accession of 
a vowel. 

8. There are three double consonants, namely, f, f, i/?, 
composed of any letter of each of the three orders of mutes, 
followed by g. Thus, 

7r^, ^f , (pg, form ij) ; 

{Tg),6g,{dg),ioYm ^} 

9. These double consonants are universally used (except 
in iEolic and Doric Greek) instead of their corresponding 
simple letters. Not, however, where the two simple letters 
belong to two different parts of the compound, as eii'OevG)^ 
not e^svG),^ 



1. The combinations rf and dg are merely inserted to complete the 
analogy to the eye ; since ^ is equivalent, in fact, to 6q merely, and 
whenever a, r, or 6 comes before a, it is thrown away ; as, avvoo for 
avvrco)^ and ireiatd for ireiSGCd. Sometimes, even m the case of 6g, the 
same rejection takes place, as epsLGO) for hoeidaG)^ where C could not oc- 
cupy the place of the characteristic letter {g') of the future. 

2. Yet 'kdrjva^e is used instead ofAdrji^CiDi/e. 

A2 



e 



BREATHINGS. 



IV. BREATHINGS. 



1. Every vowel, or diphthong, v^hich is pronounced with- 
out a letter preceding it, is necessarily connected with a 
breathing. 

2. There are two breathings, the soft^ and aspirate ; and^ 
consequently, every word beginning with a vowel, or diph- 
thong, must be pronounced with one of these breathings. 

3. The signs employed for these breathings are, for the 
soft ('), as aei, e^ ; and for the aspirate ('), as vnep, rjfzelg,^ 

4. The soft breathing has no perceptible power ;^ the as- 
pirate is equivalent to the modern h, as virsp, pronounce 
kuper. 

5. T at the beginning of words in the Attic dialect is al- 
ways to be pronounced with the aspirate ; as vdtavdogy 
vdXog, vPpig. 

6. In diphthongs the breathings are marked over the 
second vowel ; as ot, ai, evOvg, avrog ; because the breath- 
ing does not belong to either of the blended vowels separ- 
ately, but to the whole mingled sound. When, however, 
an improper diphthong has the iota adscribed, as in the 
case of capital letters, or, otherwise, subscribed, the mark 
of the breathing is placed by or over the initial vowel, as 
"Acdrjg, adrjg. 

7. P is the only consonant that receives a breathing, 
since it cannot be pronounced without an audible expiration. 
When p stands at the beginning of a word, therefore, this 
breathing is always the aspirate ; as peo), pvrog, which in 
Latin is placed after the R, as rhetor, from the Greek prjrcjp. 

1. Called also " smooth," and by its Latin name lenis. 

2. Originally the rough breathing alone had a sign, namely, H, and 
the smooth remained unmarked. Afterward that sign was divided into 
two halves, and the first half, I, was employed to denote the aspirate, 
the second half, I, the soft breathing. By a subsequent abbreviation of | 
these, two other marks were formed, namely, |_ and J, which finally 
changed into (*) and ('), the signs now in use. 

3. It attaches itself to the sound pronounced, as if spontaneouslly, with- 
out any exertion of the lungs. 



DIGAMMA. 7 

8. But when a p is followed by another p, the first must 
have the soft breathing, and the latter the aspirate, as ap- 
pTjicTog, eppeov ; for two of these letters could not be pro- 
nounced in succession each with an aspirate. 

V. DIGAMMA. 

1. Besides the rough breathing, there was in several di- 
alects another sound, somewhat similar in nature, formed 
between the lips, and having the same relation tof, ph, and 
V, that the aspirate bears to cA, g, and k, 

2. It was originally a full and strong consonant, and rep- 
resented by a letter closely resembling the Roman F, This 
letter was called digamma, because looking like a double 
gamma, and originally occupied the sixth place in the Greek 
alphabet. 

3. The term JEolic digamma was given to it, because it 
was retained in the alphabet principally by those branches 
of the Greek race that were of jEolic descent. Its true 
name, however, was Bai) ( Vau), the other appellation hav- 
ing been invented by the grammarians. 

4. In the dialects which retained the digamma, its sound 
was soon softened down, and it then answered, in pronun- 
ciation, to the English wh. Between two vowels it was 
still more attenuated, and passed, even with the iEolians, 
into V ; as avT/p, av6g, for arjp^ r]G)g, 

5. In JEolic the digamma served also for the rough 
breathing, which had no place in that dialect.^ 

VI. ACCENTS.2 

1. There are three accents in Greek; the acute, grave, 
and circumflex. 

2, The acute is denoted by the sign ('), as ^vXa^. The 

1. For some further remarks respecting the digamma, consult Excur- 
sus B, at the end of this volume. 

2. For a more enlarged view of accents, consult Excursus C. 



8 ACCENTS. 

grave is never marked, but lends its sign to the softened 
acute. The circumflex is indicated by (~), as nrjTTog. 

3. In every word there can be but one predominant tone, 
to which all the rest are subordinate. This is the sharp or 
acute accent, the fundamental tone of discourse being the 
grave. 

4. The grave accent, therefore, does not require any 
mark ; since, if the syllable which receives the strengthened 
accent be ascertained, we know that all the rest must have 
the weaker or fundamental one. Consequently, it would 
be superfluous to write Oeodojpdg, since Qeodcopog is suffi- 
cient. 

5. When a word which, by itself, has the acute accent 
on the last syllable, stands in connexion before other words, 
the acute tone is softened down, and passes more or less 
into the grave. This depressed accent is called the soft- 
ened acute, and is indicated by the mark of the grave, the 
strictly grave syllables having, as we have just remarked, 
no use for this sign, and lending it, therefore, to the soft- 
ened acute. Thus, opyrj de rcoXXd Spav dvaym^et Kand. 

6. The acute accent is placed on one of the last three 
syllables of a word, the circumflex on one of the last two. 

7. All words which have no accent on the last syllable 
are called Barytones, because a syllable neither marked by 
an acute nor circumflex accent has, of course, the grave 
tone (f3apvv rovov). 

8. All words which have the acute on the last syllable 
arc called Oxijtones (^'O^vrova, from o^vg and rovog)} 

1. The ancients observed, in pronunciation, both quantity and accent. 
This, however, is extremely difficult of accomplishment at the present 
day, and it is better for the learner, therefore, to let the quantity predom- 
inate, as being for us the more important of the two. Still, however, the 
student should accustom himself to distinguish every accented vowel 
from an unaccented one. Thus, for example, we can accent the first 
syllable in avOpurcog, and yet keep the second long ; as in the English 
grandfather^ aims-hdsket. Care must be taken, at the same time, not 
to prolong the accented short vowels ; as, for example, not to pronounce 
oTTfp like (JjTTep. 



MARKS OF READING. B 

VII. MARKS OF READING. 

1. For a period and comma the same signs are employed 
in Greek as in English. 

2. The colon and semicolon have one and the same mark, 
namely, a dot or point abo\^e the line ; as, ervcpXcoGe iie- Kot 
TV(pX6g elfic. 

3. A sign of interrogation has this form (;), as, tl tovto; 
It is the same in appearance as our English semicolon, and 
not unlike our mark of interrogation inverted. 

4. No sign of exclamation occurs in the older editions, 
yet, after interjections, and terms indicative of feeling, it is 
well to put the one in use among us ; as, S) fxoi, tgjv napov- 
TG)v icafCGjv ! (pev ! (psv ! 

5. Diastole, or hjpodiastole, has the same sign as the 
comma, and is used in certain small compound words, to 
distinguish them from others ; as, 6,rL (" whatever," formed 
from oGTig) for distinction sake from on (" that") ; and b,re 
(" which also") for distinction sake from ore (" when"). 

6. In place, however, of the diastole and hypodiastole, 
many of the more recent editions have merely the syllables 
of such words separate, and without the inserted mark ; as, 
o re and o re, instead of o,rL and o,t8. This method is at- 
tended with less interruption than the other, and is, at the 
same time, equally perspicuous. 

7. A didsresis, or sign of separation, is put when two vow- 
els that follow in succession are not to be read as a diph- 
thong, but separately. It is indicated by tvfo dots placed 
horizontally over the second one of the two vowels ; and, if 
the accent fall on that same vowel, the accentual mark is 
placed between the two dots. Thus, aidrjg (to be pro- 
nounced d-idrjg), rrpavg (to be pronounced Trpa-vg). 

VIII. CONTRACTIONS. 
1. Contractions are of two kinds, proper and improper y 
called, otherwise, syncBresis and crasis. 



10 CONTRACTIONS. 

2. A proper contraction, or synseresis, is when two sin- 
gle vowels, or open sounds, coalesce without change into 
one diphthong ; as, 'I]x6i contracted into ^%oZ ; TEix^'i con- 
tracted into reLx^i. 

3. An improper contraction, or crasis, is when two single 
vowels coalesce, but are mixed together to such a degree 
that a vowel or diphthong of a different sound is substitu- 
ted ; as, TELXsa contracted into telx'^] ; o ifJ'Og contracted 
into GVjjbog. 

4. Syllables contracted by crasis are long, and have com- 
monly a mark (') placed over tlaem, indicative of its having 
taken place. Thus, rayaOd for rd dyaSd ; ravrd for rd 
avrd. 

5. If, in the process of contraction, a mute is brought be- 
fore an aspirated vowel, the mute is also aspirated ; as, 
^ovSarog for rov vdarog ; '&olfidrLov for to Ifjidriov. 

6. The subscript iota ought never to appear in contrac- 
tions by crasis, unless it be found, previous to contraction, 
in the first syllable of the second word. Thus, tcara for 
teal elra ; and eychda for eyw ol6a. But Ka-m for Kal ent, 
not Kant ; and k&v for fcat dv, not Kav.^ 

IX. APOSTROPHE OR ELISION. 

1 . By apostrophe is meant the cutting off of a short vowel 
at the end of a word when the next word begins with a 
vowel ; and, when this takes place, it is indicated by the 
mark (') set over the empty space ; as, en' eiiov for enl 
efiov. 

2. When the following word has the rough breathing, 
and the elided vowel was preceded by a smooth mute, this 
mute becomes aspirated ; as, d(j)' ov for and ov. 

3. The vowels elided by apostrophe are a, e, i, o, but not 
V. Monosyllables, however, in a, t, o (the epic pd ex- 

1 . Many editions of the ancient writers, and almost all the lexicons, of- 
fend against this rule. 



APOSTROPHE. 11 

cepted), and the t in the dative singular and plural of the 
third declension, are not elided. 

4. Neither does the c in n and ore suffer elision, except 
in the Homeric dialect. The reason with regard to tl is, 
that it might sometimes be confounded with re ; while, if 
the t in on suffered elision, or' might be confounded with 
ore, and od' with oOl. 

5. The in rrpo is not elided, and for that very reason is 
not used by the poets before a vowel. In composition, 
however, it coalesces with the augment, and with the initial 
vowel of the following word, and os and oo are contracted 
into ov ; as, npovrvipev for npoeTv^jjev ; TrpovnTog for TxpooiX' 
Tog. 

6. The poets elided, though seldom, the diphthong ac ; 
and only in the passive endings fiac, aac, rat, oOat ; as, 
PovXeod' ecpT], spxofi' €%a)2^. Of the elision of the diphthong 
OL no example is found in Homer and the epic poets. The 
Attics elided it only in olii' for oliioi before o), but not in 
jjiOi and OOL. 

7. Since elision, by the suppression of vowels, evidently 
hurts, in some degree, distinctness of expression, it is gen- 
erally avoided in prose, so that even the slenderest sounds 
sometimes remain open. 

8. When the first word ends with a long vowel or diph- 
thong, and the second begins with a short vowel, this latter 
is elided by the Attic poets ; as, ttov 'otlv for ttov kortv ; 
^'EpjjLTj 'iiTToXale for ''Epiir] kinroXals. And, in prose writers, 
w 'yade for o) ayaOe. 

9. In diphthongs, also^ the first short vowel is cut off 
after a long one in the preceding word, chiefly after ?/ ; as, 
7] 'vGeteia for ^ evaedeca ; (irj 'vpcj for [irj evpco. 

X. N k (l)e?.Kv (77 t/cSv. 

1. By V ecpeXfcvoTLicov is meant v appended to certain 
final syllables, and it was so called because, as was erro- 



12 FINAL LETTFRS. 

neously supposed, this v did not belong to the termination, 
but was appended to the final vowel merely to prevent an 
hiatus (a word ending with a vowel and the next word be- 
ginning with one), and, therefore, drew^ as it were, the sec- 
ond vowel to the first. 

2. In truth, however, this v is not, as is generally sup- 
posed, merely an invention for the sake of euphony, but be- 
longed to the ancient formation, and was first dropped be- 
fore a consonant as the language became softer. 

3. This V 8(pe?iicvorc!c6v is added (to adopt the language 
of grammarians) to datives plural in at, and, consequently, in 
^'c and ipL ; to the third persons of verbs in e or ^ ,; to the 
immeral elfcoac, " twenty, ^^ and to the adverbs rrspvai, nav- 
rdiraGi, voGipc, irpoode, ne, vv, when the following word be- 
gins with a vowel ; ^s, ev fujalv oXiyotg, iraGtv elixev etCEL' 
voig, ETVipev avrov, eifcoGiv sttj yeyovcjg, &c. 

XL OTHER FINAL LETTERS. 

1. The letter g is sometimes found at the end of words, 
on the same principle as the v EcpeXuvarmov, Thus, we I 
have ovT(j> before a consonant, and ovrGyg before a vowel. 
So also in li^xpig and axpig, except that these two last often | 
stand without <; before a vowel. 

2. In like manner, the particle ov, "not," takes before a I 
consonant a final n, and, consequently, before the rough I 
breathing a final %. Thus, ov ixdpennv, ovk eveoriv^ ^^XX 
vnearcv, 

3. When, however, this particle stands at the end of al 
clause, or where there is a pause in the sense, the ic falls] 
away ; as, rovro 6* ov, " hut this not,^^ Ov' dAX' brav- 
" No : but when — ." 

4. The preposition e^, " out of^'' has this form only be-l 
fore vowels and before a pause ; as, t^ k\iov, e^ brov, Ka-\ 
KG)v l^. Before all consonants the ^ of the double letter 
(«:^) falls away, and the n remains ; as, en rovrov, en daX-^ 
dooTjg, Ik yr^g. 



CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 13 



XII. CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 

1. In the concurrence of two or more consonants, those 
of the same class can alone stand together, as has already 
been remarked. Hence an aspirated consonant can only 
be joined to an aspirate, a middle to a middle, a smooth to 
a smooth. In the formation of Greek words, therefore, we 
must change 

rerpidrac into rerptTiTai. 

yeypacbrai " yeypairrai, 

pdnSog " pd66og. 

STnypdcbdrjv " einypd66iiVo 

ervirOrjv " £rv<pOi]v. 

Tpc66rjGOfiac " rpi^driooiiai, 

XeXeyrai " XeXeKrai. 

jBedpsxraL " (Sedpefcrai, 

budoog " bydoog. 

eirXenQriv " kixXexOriv, 

Xeydrjooiiai " X£xOrjao[iaL 

In composition, however, the preposition efc remains im» 
changed before r, 6, 6, and hence we have mdidovai, efc- 
Oelvai, &bc. 

2. Three or more consonants cannot stand immediately 
together : but one of them (usually a o standing between 
two consonants) must be omitted, or such forms entirely 
avoided. Thus, 

Instead of rervdode we say T8TV(p6F, 

7TS7TXex(yOaL " rrenXexOac. 
reTV(pVTac " rsrvcparaL, or 

reTViifjievoi elaL 

Exceptions, (1.) This rule does not operate in com-^ 
pounds, where perspicuity of derivation renders the reten- 
tion of the third consonant necessary ; as, ennrvG), efcansv- 
6o), SvacpOapTog. (2.) If the first or last of the three con- 
sonants is a liquid {X, fi, v, p), whereby the harshness of 
pronunciation is softened ; as, eKKXrjOia, TcefKpOsLg, otcXrjpogy 
aa6(ia, alaxpog. 

3. Two syllables following one another cannot both be- 
gin with an aspirate (0, %, 6) ; but, in this case, the aspi- 
rated consonant which stands at the beginning of the first 
syllable is changed into its kindred smooth. Thus, 

B 



14 CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 

For (f)E(pLX7iKa we say T:e<piX7]Ka. 
-deOvrjKa " reOvrjica. 

Exceptions. (1.) The passive termination in i?7/v, and all 
its derivative terminations v^hich begin with -&, have no in- 
fluence upon the preceding aspirate ; and thus we write, 
chpOcjOrjv, ExvOrjVy -^acpdrjaovraL, '^pecpOrivat. In the verbs 
'&vEiv and ridevat alone, i^ is changed into r before those 
terminations ; as, ervOrjv, tTedr]v. (2.) So also the adver- 
bial terminations '&ev and '&i ; as, TravraxoSev, KoptvOodt, 
(3.) In most compounds also the rule is neglected ; as, dv- 
Oo(f)6pog, epvcpaiVG). 

4. If the latter aspirate, which caused the change, dis- 
appear, the former resumes its proper shape ; thus, i^d- 
</)o^ becomes rdcpog, " a grave,^^ by the previous rule, but 
the verb is i9a7TT6), " / bury.^^ So rpe^cj makes 'dpeipoj, 
in the future ; rpex(»), 'Spe^o) ; rvcpcd, 'dvipo) ; the presents 
of these verbs being changed by the previous rule from 
i^pe^o), dpsxo), and '&v(pG). So also the noun '^pt^, " AazV," 
makes rpcxog in the genitive (instead of the old form dpC- 
Xog) and ^pt^t in the dative plural, where the aspirate re- 
appears. 

5. The rough breathing likewise disappears in the first 
syllable when x stands in the next. Thus, the old and 
genuine form of exo) was t^w, but the aspirate was changed 
into the smooth for euphony, and reappears when the x is 
no longer present, as in the future e^o). 

6. When the rough breathing meets with a smooth, it 
changes the same into an aspirate, not only in composition, 
but, as has already been remarked, even in accidental con- 
currence ; as, ecpodog (from eiri and odog), dexrjfiepog (from 
dsKa and fjfiepa), e(p' rjfiepav (for en' rjfjiepav), &c. 

7. Aspirates are never d'oubled ; but, when two come to- 
gether, the first must be changed into its own smooth ; as, 
iaiTcp^, not la/pcpcj ; Bdnxog, not Bdxx^^ I 'Ardlg, not 'A^- 
Otg ; Mardalog, not Maddalog. 

8. The letter p in the beginning of a word is doubled 
whenever it is preceded by a vowel in composition or in- 
flection ; as, sppedTjv from peco ; appTjTog, rreptppoog, &c. 
After a diphthong, however, the single p remains ; as, ev- 
poog, evpvOfzog. 

9. Before p., the labials (3, tt, 0, i/) are changed into [i ; 



CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 15 

as, for rerpcSfiai write rerpififiaL ; for rsrvTTfiaL write rs- 
rvfxfxat ; for yeypa<piiat, yeypafifxac. Before the same let- 
ter, K and X ^^^ changed into y ; as, XeXeyfiai for XeXex- 
fiat ; dedoKfxat for dedoyiiat. And the Unguals (5, 0, r, ^ 
are changed before the same into a ; as, aoiia for a(^|(/a ; 
TTeTTELdiiac for TTEixeidiiaL ; TJvvafiac for fivvriiai ; ipi^cpLOiia 
for iprj(pL^[j.a. 

10. Before cr, the Unguals (5, ^, r, <^ are dropped ; as, for 
7r6(J(7i write Trocrt ; for ttXtjOgg), ttXtjgo) ; for adjiiarai. crw- 
juacr^ ; for apTrdfcra), dprrdao). 

11. The letter i', before the labials /3, />^, tt, 0, i/^, is 
changed into fx ; as, efiPaXXo) (from ei^ and paXXcj), avfi- 
nrpaacG) (from cft;!' and Trpdaao)), &:c. The same letter is 
changed into y before y, k, x-> ^ (though pronounced as ng) ; 
as, eyysXdd) (from sv and yeAaw), ovyxai^po) (from (7vi^ and 
Xdipo)), &c. 

12. If ^' comes before /I or p, it is changed into A or p ; 
as, for avvXoyi^G), (jyvptnTO), write avXXoyt^G), aypptrrrG). 

13. The letter v is usually thrown away before cr or ^; 
as, for dacfjiovat, Gvv^vyta, write daLfioot, ov^vyta. But 
the preposition ev before o and f remains throughout un- 
changed ; as, evaeto), ev^eofiac. On the other hand, the 
preposition aw, before g followed by a vowel, changes v 
into a ; as, avaatrta, avaaetG), for Gvvairia, GwaeiG). 

14. When the letter v, and r, 6, or d following, are to- 
gether rejected before cr, then the vowel remaining, if short, 
is changed into a diphthong, namely, £ into ec, and o into 
ov ; and, if a doubtful vowel, is lengthened. The loner vow- 
els 7] and G) remain unchanged. Thus, 

TvcpQevTGi becomes rv(f)OetGi, 

GTrevSGG) " GTCeiGG). 



'^& 



XeOVTGL 




XeovGL. 


rVTTTOVTGL 




TV7TT0VGL, 


Tv^l)avrGC 




rvijjdGi. 


ycyavTGL 

deiKVVVTGi 




yiydGi. 
decfivvGL. 


rvnrojVTGL 




TVTrrOJGL. 



In some instances this alteration takes place when only v 
has been rejected ; as, evg becomes elg ; rdXavg, rdXdg ; 
fieXavg, fjieXdg, 



IG FIGURES AFFECTING SYLLABLES. 

Xin. FIGURES AFFECTING SYLLABLES. 

1 . Prosthesis is the addition of one or more letters at the 
beginning of a word ; as, OfiiK-pog for [itfcpog ; eeUoac for 
eIkool} :,| 

2. Paragoge is the addition of one or more letters at the 
end of a word ; 3,s, rjada for rjg ; XoyoiGiv for Xoyoig, 

3. Epenthesis is the insertion of one or more letters iu 
the body of a word ; as, TTrdXefiog for noAefjiog ; birirorepog 
for OTzorepog. 

4. Syncope is the taking away of one or more letters 
from the body of a word ; as, repaog for reparog ; narpog 
for Ttarepog. 

5. AphcBresis is the taking away of one or more letters 
from the beginning of a word ; as, eIPg) for XeiPo) ; ^ for 
07/ or ecpTj. 

6. Apocope is the taking away of one or more letters 
from the end of a word ; as, nap for Tiapd ; 6g) for Sojfia. 

7. Metathesis is the transposition of letters and syllables ; 
as, eupaOov for enapOov, from TrepBcd ; edpafcov for edapnov, 
from dspuG) ; Kpadia for icapdia ; drapTro^ for drpairog. 

8. Tmesis is the separation of the preposition of a com- 
pound from the verb by means of some other word interve- 
ning ; as, vTTsp TLvd ex^iv for vTrepex^iv nva. 

XIV. DIALECTS.2 

1. The principal dialects of the Greek language are four; 
the jEolic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic. 

2. The jTlolic retained the most numerous traces of the 
early Greek, and hence the Latin coincides more with this 
than with the other dialects. It was distinguished from the 
Doric by trifling differences ; chiefly, however, by the use 

1. Most, if not all, of the examples oi prosthesis are, in fact, old forms 
of the language. So also those of paragoge and cpenthesis. 

2. For more particular remarks concerning the dialects, consult Ex- 
cursus D, and the observations at the end of each declension, &c. 



DIALECTS. 17 

of the digamma before vowels at the beginning and in the 
middle of words, and before some consonants, as p ; whereas 
the digamma was dropped by the Doric and other dialects. 

3. The Doric was hard, rough, and broad, particularly 
from the frequent use of a for t] and w ; b.s, a Xdda for i] 
XtjSt] ; TUV fCDpdv for tu)V fcopojv ; and from the use of two 
consonants, where the other Greeks employed the double 
consonants ; as, fieXtaderac for fieXc^erai, &c., v/hich was 
also the custom in JEolic. It was rudest among the Spar- 
tans, the enemies of all change, and was spoken in its great- 
est purity by the Messenians. 

4. The Ionic was the softest of all the dialects, on ac- 
count of the frequent meeting of vowels, and the rejection 
of aspirated letters. Thus, they said noieG) for ttocg) ; tvtt- 
Tso for TV7TT0V ; deKOfiaL for dexofiat ; dnaipso) for d(f)aLp6) 
Hence also it is fond of the hiatus, or confluence of vowel 
sounds, against which the Attic so carefully guards. 

5. The Attic was the most polished dialect, and forms 
the basis of our ordinary grammars. It avoided the colli- 
sion of vowel sounds, and was, therefore, fond of contrac- 
tions. It diifered from the Ionic by using the long a where 
the lonians employed the rj after a vowel or the letter p, and 
by preferring the consonants with an aspirate, which the 
lonians rejected. It employed, also, in its later stages, the 
double pp instead of the old pg, and the double tt instead 
of the hissing oa, 

XV. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. There B,re eight parts of speech in Greek, namely. Ar- 
ticle (apdpov), Noun (bvofjia), Adjective {erciderov), Pronoun 
{dvTG)VVfiia), Verb (pruia), Adverb {mipprnia), Preposition 
{iTpodeatg), and Conjunction {avvdeaiiog). 

2. The Interjection is ranked among adverbs. 

3. The Article, Noun, Adjective, and Pronoun are de- 

B2 



ly PARTS OF SPEECH. 

clined by Genders (yevrj), Cases (rrrcjaeLg), and Numbers 
(apidiioi). 

4. There are three Genders; the Masculine (yevog dp-- 
(yevLKOv), Feminine {^t^Xvkov), and Neuter (ovderepov) ; and 
to mark the gender the article is usually employed in gram- 
mar ; namely, 6 for the masculine, rj for the feminine, and 
TO for the neuter. Thus, 6 dvdpcjirog, " the man ;" rj yvvrj, 
'' the woman ,*" to xPW^^ " ^^^ thing,^^ Some nouns, how- 
ever, are both masculine and feminine ; as, 6, rj, fcorivog, 
'' the wild olive-treeJ'' These are said to be of the common 
gender. 

5. There are three numbers, the Singular {apiBiibg kvc^ 
fcog), Dual [dvltcog), and Plural {rrXTjOvvrttcog). The sin- 
gular denotes one ; the plural more than one ; the dual, two, 
or a pair. 

6. There are five cases, the Nominative {iTTG)Gtg ovofzacT' 
TiKTj), Geriitive (yevticrj), Dative {doTLfcrj), Accusative {alri" 
arifCT]), and Vocative {K?i7jTLKrj). 

7. The Greek name of the ablative would be d^aiperi' 
KTj, but the national grammarians of Greece do not make 
mention of this case, because in Greek its form is, in every 
instance, the same with the dative. 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nominative, ac- 
cusative, and vocative alike in all the numbers ; and these 
cases in the plural end always in a. 

2. The nominative and vocative plural are always alike. 

3. The nominative, accusative, and vocative dual are 
alike ; as also the genitive and dative. 

4. The dative singular in all three declensions ends in c. 
In the first two, however, the t is subscribed. 

5. The genitive plural ends always in 0)v. 



THE ARTICLE. 



19 



XVI. THE ARTICLE. 
1. The article is a word prefixed to a noun, and serving 
to ascertain or define it. Its declension is as follows : 

Singular, 





Masc. 


Fern. 


Neuter. 




Norn. 


6 


V 


TO 


the. 


Gen. 


TOV 


TTjg 


TOV 


of the. 


Dat. 


TO) 


TXl 


TG) 


to the. 


Acais, 


TOV 


rrjv 
Dual 


TO 


the. 


Norn. ) 
Accus. I 


rcj 


rd 


TG) 


the two. 


Gen. ( 
Dat. I 


rolv 


ralv 
Plural, 


rolv 


of or to the 
two. 


Nom. 


ol 


at 


rd 


the. 


Gen. 


tCjv 


TGJV 


rCdv 


of the. 


Dat. 


Tolg 


ralg 


rolg 


to the. 


Accus. 


rovg 


rag 


rd 


the. 



REMARKS ON THE ARTICLE. 

1. The article was originally a demonstrative pronoun; 
but, in the later Ionic and Attic dialects, it became merely 
a means of definincr nouns. ^ 



1 . In the older grammars two articles are given ; the prepositive^ 6^ 
7}^ TO, and the postpositive, 6g, r/, o, which we call, at the present day, 
the relative pronoun. In a sentence like the following, *' This is the 
man who will deliver us" (Ovrog eanv 6 avyp og auaei ijfid^), the two 
words " the^^ and " who^^ (6 and 6g) refer so intimately to each other, 
and lock, as it were, into one another so much like joints, connecting in 
this way the two clauses as members or limbs of one sentence, that the 
Greeks termed them apOpa, articuli, oi joints. The first of these, how- 
ever, namely, 6, ?/, to, stands very commonly with its simple clause 
alone, and is therefore, strictly speaking, in such instances no longer 
an article or joint. But this arises from the circumstance, that, in very 
many instances of this kind, the second clause is not expressed in words, 
but is left to be mentally supplied ; such as, " who is spoken of," or 



86 NOUNS. 

2. There is no form of the article for the vocative, for c5 
is au interjection. 

3. If the particles ye and (5e are annexed to the article, 
it has the signification of the pronoun " this," but the de- 
clension remains the same. Thus, o(5e, ^(Je, rode^ genitive 
Tovde^ TTjode, rovde, &c. 

4. In the early Greek the article was rog, rrj, ro, and 
hence arise the plural rot, rat in Doric and Ionic, and the 
T in the neuter and the oblique cases. 

XVII. NOUNS. 

1. The Declensions {nXiGsig) of nouns are three, corre- 
sponding to the first three declensions in Latin. 

2. 'T]ie First Declension Yidi^ four texumidXioris : two fem^ 
inine, a and r] ; and two masculine, ag and rjg. 

3. The Second Declension has two terminations, og and 
ov. Nouns in og are generally masculine, sometimes femi- 
nine ; nouns in ov are always neuter. 

4. The Third Declension ends in a, i, v, neuter; G) fern-' 
inine ; and v, ^, p, a, ip, of all genders ; and increases in 
the genitive. 

XVIII. FIRST DECLENSION. 
Termi7iations, 



?}/< 



emimne. 



^ > masculine, 
V^ S 



1. Nouns in pa and a pure, that is, a preceded by a 
vowel, together with some proper names, as Arjda, 'Av- 
dpofxeda, ^LXojirjXa, /ltOTL[jia, and also the substantive dXa- 
Xd, " a war-cry^'' have the genitive in ag, and retain their 
a through all the cases of the singular. 

*' who is here concerned," or " whom you know," &c. Hence it became, 
by degrees, a usage of the language to annex the prepositive article o, ^, 
TO by itself to every object which is to be represented as definite j either 
by means of the language itself or from the circumstances. In their 
whole theory, however, the two articles are adjective pronouns. {Butt- 
manri's larger Grammar, p. 121, liohinscm's transl.) 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



21 



2. All the contracted nouns of this declension likewise 
retain the a in the genitive and other cases of the singular ; 
as, \iva^ fiv-dg, &c. ; 'AOrjvd, 'AOrjv-dg, <fec. 

3. All other nouns in a have the genitive in rjg, and da- 
tive in ^ ; but in the accusative and vocative they resume 
their a. 

4. Nouns in rj retain the rj throughout the singular num- 
ber, making the accusative in 7]v, and the vocative in rj. 



Singular, 
N. 7f 7)fiep-a, 
G. TTJg 7jjuep-ac, 
D. ry ?)/j.ep-a, 
A. TT^v 7]jLiep-aVj 
V. 7/fxep-a. 



Examples. 

Tj rjfispa, " the daj/.^^ 

Dual. 

I N. ra 7jfj,ep-a, 
G. raiv Tj/LLsp-atv, 
D. ratv 7]fi£p-aiv, 
A. ra 7/fzep-a, 

I V. 7jfjLep-a. 



Plural. 
N. al 7jfiep-ai, 
G. tC)v r^juep-coVy. 
D. ralg Tjfisp-aig 
A. rag rjiiep-ag, 
V. Tjfiep-ac^ 



Singular. 
N. y oo(pi-ay 
G. TTjg co(pi-agj 
D. r^ ao(pL-a, 
A. T7]v (joipl-avy 
V. GO(bl-a. 



Singular. 
N. 7f 66^-a, 
G. r^f 66^-7jg, 
D. r^ (5o^-^, 
A. T7JV 66^-aVy 
V. (56f-a. 



Singular. 
N. ^ Ke(pd?.-7/y 
G. r^f Ke(l)a?i-7jgy 
D. r^ Ke(paA-y, 
A. r^i; K£(paA-riVy 
V. Ke(ba?i'7/. 



rj ao(l)La, " wisdom. ^^ 

Dual. 

N. ra GO(f)t-a, 
G. rati^ oo^l-aiv, 
D. rai-y (Tocbl-aLVj 
A. TO, ao(j>L-a, 
I V. GO(j)L-a. 

rj do^a, " the opinion. 

Dual. 
N. ra (5d^-a, 
G. rari* dof-aii', 
D. ra?!' ^o^-Gii^, 
A. ra f^of-a, 
V. (56f-a. 

ly KecpaXrj, " ^^e head.^^ 

Dual. 
N. ra KEcpaX-dy 
G. ra?i^ Ke(pa?i-alVf 
J), ratv K€(f)a?^,-alVy 
A. ra K£(baX-dy 
V. /ce^aA-a. 



Plural. 
N. at aocpt-ai, 
G, rwa^ Godi-cJVy 
D. ralg GO^l-aigy 
A. rag GO(pl-ag, 
V. GO(pc-ac. 



Plural. 
N. Gi 66^-ai, 
G. rwv (Jo^-cji^, 
D. rar^ (5o^-aify 
A. raf dof-af, 
V. (56f-ai. 



Plural. 
N. ai Ks^aX-aCy 
G. rwv Ke^a\-C)Vy 
D. raZ'f KecpaX-algy 
A. rag Ke^aTi-dgy 
V. K£6aK-ai. 



23 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



Decline 



Like Vfiepa, 
^vpa, a door, 
'idpa, a seat, 
ayopd, a market-place, 
iiyKvpa, an anchor, 
ye(pvpa, a bridge. 

Like to^a, 
y'kQ)aaa, a tongue, 
diipa, thirst, 
Trelva, hunger, 
'&d\aGaa, a sea, 
piC,a, a root, 
aiiOCka, a contest. 



Like aocpiaf 
OLKLa, a house, 
GKia, a shadow, 
(pL7da, friendship, 
air la, a cause, 
aTirjOsia, truth. 

LikcTce^d/ljJ, 
KOfiT), hair, 
(povTj, a voice, 
667}, a song, 
vecpsXr], a cloud, 
GeXyvi], the moon, 
TL/j,^, honour. 



5. Nouns in ag make the genitive in ov, and the dative 
in a, and the remaining cases like those of f][iepa. 

6. Nouns in rjg make the genitive in ov, the accusative 
in 7jv, and the vocative in ?/, and the rest like rjiiipa. 



Examples. 

6 vsavcag, " the youth, '^^ 

Singular. Dual. 

N. 6 veavi-ag, N. tcj veavc-a, 

G. Tov veavi-ov, G. tolv veavi-atv, 

D. rai veavi-a, D. rolv veavi-atv, 

A. TOV veavi-av, A. rw veavi-a, 

V. veavi-a. V. veavi-a. 



Singular. 

N. 6 reXuv-Tjc, 
G. TOV Te?Mv-ov, 
D. T(j Te'Xuv-y, 
A. TOV Te'kuv-Tjv, 
V. TeXuv-rj. 



6 reXcjVTjg, " the tax-gatherer,^^ 

Dual. 
N. TO) TeX6v-a, 
G. TOLv Te?iuv-acv, 
D. Toiv TeTitJv-atv, 
A. Tw TeAuv-a, 
V. Te\C)v-a. 



Plural. 

N. ol veavi-ai, 
G. tC)v veavL-iJv, 
D. Toig veavi-ai^, 
A. Tovg veavi-ag, 
V. veavi-ai. 



Plural. 
N. oi TeT^cjv-aL, 
G. rwv reAwv-cjo^, 
D. Tolg Tel6v-aig, 
A. Tovg Te7i<j)v-ag, 
V. TeTiuv-at. 



Decline 



Like veavlag, 
fjLOvcar, a solitary, 
Ta/itag, a steward, 
Kox'^^iag, a snail, 
Alveiag, JEneas, 
Uvdayopac, Pythagoras, 
*Avu^ay6pag, Anaxagoras» 



Like TeX6v7]g, 

cLKivdKTjg, a short sword, 
X^t-porexvTjg, a workman, 
aiyodr/TiTjg, a goat-sucker, 
kTCkrjvodiKTjg, a judge at the games, 
'Arpeidrjg, Atrides, 
^Ayxj-orig, Anchises. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



23 



7. Nouns in TTjg, compounds in TTrjg ; as, fcvvdjnrjgy " an 
impudent person ;'^^ names indicative of nations; as, HepGrjg, 
*^* a Persian,''^ lifivdrjg, " a Scythian ;" together with deriv- 
atives from jisrpG), ttwAw, and rpcdcj, as, yecJiMsrprjg, " a ge- 
ometer^'' fjivpo'iTG)?i7]g, " a vender of perfumes,^^ TTacdorpCdrigj 
" a teacher of gymnastic s,^^ make the vocative singular in a, 
not in 7]. Thus, tcvvG)7T7jg, voc. Kvvcjnd ; UspaTjg, voc. Hep- 
ad. But Ueparjg, a man's name (Perses), makes rj. 

8. Nouns in orrjg have 7] or din the vocative ; as, Xriorrig, 
" a rohher^'^ voc. Xfjcirrj or XTjard. 

CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

1. In forming these contractions, ea preceded by p, and 
by aa, becomes a ; as, epea, contracted epd, " wool ;" fjivda, 
fivd, " a mina;'' l3opeag, j3oppdg, " the north wind,^^ 

2. But ea not prec'^ded by p, or aa, and also erj and orj, 
become ^ ; as, yea, y?7, " the earth ;" yaXsrj, yaXi], " a w;ea- 
,ye/;" dcTrXoT], dmXrj, " double ;^^ 'F^pfisag, 'E/Of^%, '' MercU" 
ry ,*" 'ATTsXXerjg, 'ATreXXrjg, " Apelles,^^ 

3. In the genitive, ov absorbs the preceding vowel ; asy 
'Epjjisov, 'Epuov, 



Singular. 
N. epe-a, ep-a 
G. kpe-acj 
D. epe-a, 
A. epe-av, 
V. epg-a, 



Examples. 
epea, contr. epd, " w;ooZ." 



tp-ac, 
ep-a, 
ep-dVf 
ep-d. 



N. epe-G, 
G. kpe-acv, 
D. kpe-acvy 
A. £pe-a, 
V. ep£-<2. 



Plural. 
N. kpe^aty kp-at 
G. epe-cJVf 
D. kpE-atc, 
A. kpe-ag, 
V. kpe-acj 



ep'CoVj 
ep-alCf 
ep-dg, 
kp-at. 



yaXerj, contr. yaA^, " a weasel.^^ 



Singular. 
N. yaM'T), yaX-T]^ 
G. yale-rig, yaX-fiq, 
D. yaM-y, yaX-y, 
A. yaXe-riVy yaX-riv^ 
V. yaXi-ri, yaX-ij. 



Dual. 
N. yaM-a, yal-d^ 
G. yaXe-aiv, ya%-alv, 
D. yaXe-atv, yal-atv, 
A. yaXi-a, ya7\.-dy 
V. yaXi-a, yaX-d. 



Plural. 
N. yale-ai, yaX-ai, 
G. ya/l£-6)V, ya/l-oii/, 
D. ya%E-aiq^ ya\-alq^ 
A. yaM-ac^ yaX-dq^ 
V. yaXi-ac, yaX-al^ 



24 DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 



DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

1. Instead of the terminations rjg and ag of the nomina- 
tive singular, the iEolians employed a. Hence TTOLTjrrjg 
and veaviag become, in iEolic Greek, noLrjrd, veavtd. So 
also we have in the same dialect the Homeric nominatives, 
fjLTjTterd, ve(peXr]yepeTd, evpvond, &c. From this source 
comes the Latin nominative singular of the first declension, 
poetdj cometd, &c. 

2. The jEolians made the genitive singular end in aig, 
and also in ag, vi^hich latter form was common unto them 
with the Dorians. Thus, rjfjbspa'ig for rjfiepag ; So^ag for 
So^Tjg, from the ^Eolic nominative dogd. From the genitive 
in aig the Latins derived, by dropping the final g, their old 
genitive of the first declension in di, as musai, aulai, terrain 
which afterward changed to (e. The other genitive, name- 
ly, that in ag, gave rise to another early form of the genitive 
in Latin, that in as, which still remains in paterfamilias, 
materfamilias, &c. 

3. The iEolians used in the genitive plural dG)v instead 
of G)v, and in the accusative plural they had aig for ag. 
Thus, iieXiaad(j)v for iieXioaCdv ; naXalg, GO(palg, for icaXdg, 
<JO(pdg. 

4. The Dorians employed the broad a in the termination 
as well as other parts of the nominative and oblique cases. 
Thus, (f>rjfjb7j, Doric (f)dijid ; vvfjiiprj, Doric vvfi^d ; (brjfirjv ; 
Doric (pdfiav, &c. 

5. The Dorians give nouns in ag the genitive in a ; as, 
Aivelag, gen. Alvecd ; IlTjXeldag, gen. UrjXeidd. This gen- 
itive is formed by contraction from do ; thus Alveido, con- 
tracted Alveid ; UrjXeiddo, contracted ILrjXetSd, So, also, 
in the plural, they contracted dodv into dv, saying for MeXt- 
do)v, MeXidv ; for '&7]XvrepdG)v, '&rjXvr£pdi^, (fee, where the 
Ionic has eojv, and the Attic ojv. 

6. The lonians changed the long a of this declension 
into rj ; as, ao(pL'rj, rjixeprj, verjvirjg, &c. ; very seldom, how- 
ever, the short a. The lonians also changed ov of the 
genitive singular into ew, and g)v of the genitive plural into 
ecdv ; thus 'Arpecdeoj for 'ArpeiSov ; TTOLrjreG) for TTOcrjrov ; 
K0fj.7jTeG)v for KOjjiTjTCOv ; LKereojv for Iketojv. 

7. The lonians employed the termination ea instead of 
rjv in the accusative singular of nouns in 7]g ; as, deairorea 
for deoTTorrjv ; Kafxdvaea for Kafidvarjv, So in the accusa- 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



25 



tive plural they used sag for ag ; as, de^nroTeag for dea- 
TTorag. 

8. The lonians, in the Dative plural, employed xi^t for 
aig ; as, deonoT'qac for deGnoracg ; vrjOLdjr'^aL for vrjaidraLg, 

XIX. SECOND DECLENSION. 
Terminations. 

og, masculine, sometimes feminine. 
ov, always neuter.^ 

Examples. 



Singular, 
N. 6 X6y-og, 
G. Tov "koy-ov^ 
D. rw /Idy-w, 
A. roi^ Ady-ov, 
V. Ady-e. 



6 Aoyof, " the discourse ^^ 



Dual. 

N. rcj Ady-cj, 
G. Tolv7i6y-oLv, 
D. roii' Ady-oi?^, 
A. rw Ady-o), 
V. Ady-w. 



Plural, 
N. oi 7.6y-oi,, 
G. rcj'y ^ody-w?^, 
D. roif Ady-oif, 
A. 7-oi)f Ady-oi/f, 
7^6y-OL. 



V. 



Singular. 
N. ?7 d(^-df, 
G. r^f ©(^-otJ, 
D. r^ 66-(l), 
A. r^v dd-di/, 
V. 66-L 



7} 666g, " ^7ie t^ay." 

N. Ttt 0(5-6, 
G. ralv 66-olv, 
D. rail' 6d-oLv, 
A. rd d(5-(j, 
V. 6S-6. 



Plural. 
N. at d(5-o£, 
G. TcJv od-uvy 
D. ralg 6d-olg^ 
A. rag 66-ovg, 
V. 66-oi, 



Singular. 
N. rd dwp-ov, 
G. TOV Scjp-ov, 
D. rcj ddp-G)f 
A. rd daip-ov, 
V. 6up-ov. 



TO dojpov, " ^/ee gift" 

Dual. 

N. rw SSp'O), 

G. ro?v Stjp-oLv, 

D. roiv d6p-0Lv, 

A. ro) 66p-Oj 

V. 66p'0). 



Plural. 
N. rd Scjp-a, 
G. rwz^ dop-ov, 
D. roif Sup-oig, 
A. rd dcjp-ay 
V. dup-a. 



1 . Except in diminutives of female names', where, by a species of sy* 
nesis, the gender refers to the person meant, not to the termination of 
the noun. Thus, ij T?.vfCEpLov, from T?^vK€pd ; tj AeSvTLOv^ &c. So iu 
Terence, *' mea Glycerium.^^ 

c 



26 



SECOND DECLENSIQN. 



Decline 



Like Adyof, 
(J^^of , a people^ 
KvpcoCj a master, 
uvdpuTTog, a man, 
adeldSg, a brother, 
vlog, a son, 
avEfjiog, a wind, 
ayyeXog, a messenger, 
v6/LLog, a law, 
olnog, a house^ 
olvog, wine. 



Like SupoVf 
devdpov, a tree, 
^vTiov, wood, 
opyavov, an instrumenty 
epyov, a work, 
lirjlov, an apple, 
TTpoBaTov, a sheep, 
C,C)0Vy an animal, 
TEKvov, a child, 
f)66ov, a rosey 
GVKOV, a Jig. 



Like odSg, 

u/j.7T£?iOc, a vine, 
vfjoog, an island, 
vdaoq, a disease, 
OTTodog, ashes, 
Trapdevog, a maiden, 
(St^log, a book. 

1. Many words of this declension have a double gender, 
as something masculine or feminine is denoted by them ; 
as, 6 i?ed^, the god, rj '&e6g, the goddess ; 6 dvSpo)Trog, the 
man, rj avdpojirog, the woman ; 6 dptcrog, the he-bear, rj dpK- 
Tog, the she-bear, Slc. 

2. Others, again, have a double gender, vc^ithout such 
ground ; as, 6, rj, pivog, the skin ; 6, ?J, 'Sdfivog, the shrub; b, 
7], 6dp6cTog, the lyre ; 6, rj, olfiog, the path, &c. 

3. Some with the gender alter likewise the meaning ; 
as, 6 ^vyog, the yoke^ rj ^vyog, the balance ; 6 CTrnog, the horse, 
7] LTTTTog, the cavalry, and also the mare ; 6 XemSog, pulse-broth^ 
Tj XeniSog, the yolk of an egg, 

4. The following become neuter in the plural : 



6 pdarpvxog, 
6 deofiog, 
b -deafiog, 
b dicppog, 
7] fcsXevSog, 
b /li3%vo^, 

6 OLTOg, 



the curl, 

the chain, 

the law, 

the chariot*seat, 

the way, 

the torch^ 

the corn^ 



rd pdarpvxoi* 
rd 6eGfj,d, 
rd 'deafid, 
rd dL(j)pa. 
rd KeXevOa, 
rd Xv^va. 
rd olra. 



ATTIC FORM OF DECLENSION. 



27 



5. The vocative singular has not only e, but likewise og 
for a termination. Thus, 6 'deog, voc. g) '^eog. So, also, 
w (ptXog, (fee. This is particularly the case in the Attic di- 
alect. 

ATTIC FORM OF DECLENSION.^ 
1 o The Attic form of declension makes the vocative like 
the nominative, and has g) in the termination of every case. 
2. The final v is often omitted in the accusative singu- 
lar ; as, XayG) for Xaycov ; veco for vecov ; so) for ecov. This 
is particularly the case in proper names ; as, Kw, Kew, 
Teco, "AOcj, for Kojv, Kewi', &c. 







Examples. 








( 


5 Xaycog, '' the hare.''^ 






Singular. 


Dual 




Plural. 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 


6 7\.ay-(dqy 
TOV ?iay-6, 
TO) Tiay-o), 
TOV Xay-o)Vf 
Xay-cjg. 


N. rw ?My-6j 
G. TOLV Xay-o}v, 

D. TOLV 7My-0)Vj 

A. TG) Tiay-^y 
V. %ay-od. 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 


OL 7iay-6, 
TO)v lay-ibv, 
Tolg lay-o)Q, 
TOvg 7iay-6g, 
Tiay-o). 




TO dvc 


oyso)V, " the dining-'i 


rooTT 


l" 




Singular. 


Dual. 




Plural. 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 


TO avo)ye-o)Vf 
TOV avo)ye-o), 
TO) av6ye-o), 
TO av6)ye-o)v, 
uv6ye-o)v. 


N. TO) av6)ye-o), 
G. Tolv av6y€-o)v, 
D. TOLV av6ye-o)v, 
A. TO) avuye-o), 
V. av6y€-o). 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 


TO, av6ye-o)j 
Tuv avo)y€-o)v, 
Tolg avo)y€'0)gj 
TO, av6)ye-o), 
av6ye-o). 



1. The neuters of some adjectives have also g) in the 
nominative and accusative, especially dyrjpojg, neuter ayrj- 
po). 

2. Words, which otherwise belong to the third declen- 
sion, are often declined after this particular form ; as, Mlvo) 

1. Buttmann calls this an old and peculiar mode of inflection, em- 
ployed by the Attics {Ausf. SprachL, p. 157). Thiersch, on the con- 
trary (G. G., <S) 53, 4), maintains, that these forms arise merely from the 
rejection of the formal letters o, e, a after the vowels contracted into eo. 
Buttmann's opinion is undoubtedly the true one. 



28 CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

(from Mivcdg, MtvGyog) for Mivcja in the accusative. So, 
also, yeXojv (from ye/lo)^, yeXcorog) for ye/lwra ; and rjpo)^ 
(from 7]po)g, r]pG)og) for ^pwa. 

3. Only one neuter in wg is assigned to this form of de- 
clension, namely, to xpeoyg^ the debt. According to the an- 
cient grammarians, it has xpedyg not only in the accusative, 
but also in the genitive singular. All the other parts are 
formed from xpeog ; thus pi. xped, &;c. 

CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

1. The letters eo, oe, and oo become ov ; di^^adeXipLdeog 
contracted a6eX(j)idovg ; voe^ vov ; voog, vovg. 

2. A short vowel before a long one, or a diphthong, is 
absorbed ; as, t:X6g)v, rrXcov ; nXooiv, ttXoIv, 

3. In the neuter, a absorbs the preceding vov^el, and be- 
comes long ; aSjOtrrea, dord, 

4. In the vocative, ee is not contracted ; as, ddeA^/fe. 







Examples. 








6 voog, 


contracted vovg, " the mind.^^ 






Singular. 


Dual Plural 




N. 


6 vO'Og, vovc, 


N. TO) v6-Of VCJy 


N. ol vS-oi, 


voXj 


G. 


TOV v6-0V, VOVf 


G. TOtV v6-0LVy votv, 


G. TcJv v6-(ov, 


vcov. 


D. 


rC) v6-(f), vu, 


D. roLV v6-0Lv, volv. 


D. rocQ vo-otg^ 


volg, 


A. 


TOV v6-ov, vovv, 


A. TO) v6-(0y VCJy 


A. Tov^vo-ovg 


vovg. 


V. 


v6-ey vov. 


V. v6-o)y vii). 


V. v6-oi, 


vol. 



TO OGTEOV, contracted doTovv, " the honeJ*^ 
Singular. Dual Plural 



N. TO b(JTi-0Vy boT-ovv^ 

G. TOV boTe-ov^ bar-oVj 

D. T(j bare-Gj, b(7T-Cj, 



N. TO) bcTTe-cjy b<7T-cJ, |N. TO, bare-a, bar-dj 

G. TOlv bffT€-0iV, bGT-OtV\G. TCOV bGTS-0)Vy OOT-CJV, 



D. Tolv boTe-OLv, bar-olv 



A. 70 boTE-OVy OGT-OVV, A. TU) baTE-tiy b(7T-(Jy 
V. b(JTE-OVj b(TT-OVV.\Y. OGTE-Oy buT-C)^ 



D. Tolg bGTe-otgy bcT-olq 

A. Ta bare-ay bar-Uy 

V. bare-ay baf-Cu 



DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

1. The iEolians vv^rote the dative singular without the t 
subscribed ; as, co^C) for c7o0g3. Hence the Latin dative 
and ablative in o of the second declension. In the accusa- 



THIRD DECLENSION* 



29 



tive plural they are said to have employed the termination 
otg for ovg ; as, fcdrroig vojioig for nard rovg vofiovg. 

2. The Dorians changed the termination og of the nom- 
inative into op ; as, Tifioaeop 6 McXrjatop for Tt(j,6deog 6 
MiXrjCftog. In the genitive singular they changed the ter- 
mination ov into 6) ; as, ra3 vofio) for rov vofiov. And in 
the accusative plural they employed the termination ojg for 
ovg ; as, rcbg XvnGyg for rovg Xvnovg. Hence the accusa- 
tive plural in os of the second declension of Latin nouns. 

3. The lonians use eo), in the termination of the genitive 
singular, for ov ; as, 'Kpoioeo) for Kpoioov ; Barreo) for Bar- 
Tov. In the plural they changed (x)v of the genitive into 
eG)v ; as, neaasoyv for ttsogcov ; irvpeojv for rrvpojv ; and in 
the dative used olgl for OLg; 2iS,XLdocaL for Xcdoig. 

4. The form of the genitive oto for ov occurs for the most 
part in the poets only, chiefly the epic. The original form 
of the genitive seems to have been -oo (analogous to ao in 
the first declension), whence came olo, and by contraction 
Of. In the genitive and dative dual the epic poets insert 
an L ; as, Ittttouv, &iioilv^ aradiioUv. 

5. The old form of the dative occurs also in Attic ; as, 
KaiioloLV, Plat, Gorg. p. 497, D. ; tovtolgi, ib, p. 28 ; oIkoL' 
oiv, Soph. (Ed. T. 249, &c. 

XX. THIRD DECLENSION. 

Terminations, 
a, t, v, neuter. 
6), feminine. 
V, f, p, G, ip, of all genders. 

1. The third declension is distinguished from the two 
preceding in making the oblique cases longer by one syl- 
lable than the nominative. In other words, it is said to 
increase in the genitive. The genitive ends always in og. 

2. The root of the words in this declension is generally 
disguised in the nominative by added vowels and conso- 
nants, and is to be discovered by taking away og from the 
genitive. Thus, nominative 6 daifjicjv, " the deity,^^ geni- 
tive SaifjioV'Og, root daifiov ; 6 ytyag, *' the giant^^^ gen. yt- 

C2 



30 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



yavT'Og, root yiyavr ; to OLJ/Jia, 
root aoJiJ^aT, &c. 



^ the body^^ gen. ocjfMaT'og^ 



Singular. 
G. rov '&7]p-6^, 

D. TL) ^7Jp-ty 

A. rov d-^p-a, 



Singular. 

N. 6 atwv, 
G. rov aiuv-og, 
D. rcj alcjV'Ly 
A. roi^ alC)v-a, 



Singular. 
N. o SaljLLCJV, 
G. rot) SaifLov-ogf 
D. Tib datfiov-t, 
A. rov daluov-a, 
V. dalfiov. 



Singular. 
N. Aewv, 
G. rot) 7<.eovT-ogy 
D. rw MovT-t, 
A. rov TiEOVT-ay 
V. Pucov. 



Examples.* 
6 i?^p, " itAe ^^^7(i least ?^ 



Dual. 
N. ro) -d-rfp-Ey 
G. rotv -d^rjp-olv, 
D. rotv '&r]p-olv, 
A. rw T^TJp-Ey 
V. -d-fjp-e. 

6 ai6v, " ^^e ^5^^." 

Dual. 
N. ro) alC)V'£y 
G. roiv al6v'0Lv, 
D. roiv al6v-ocVy 
A. rcj alcJv-£y 
V. aluv-E, 



Plural. 

N. ot -^ffp-sCf 
G. rdiv -d-yp-uVj 
D. ro^f '&7jp-Giy 
A. roi)f -d^yp-ag, 
V. ^TJp'Eg. 



Plural. 

N. Oi aluV'Eg, 
G. rwv ai6v'0)Vf 
D. roif al(J-GLy^ 
A. roi'f alcov-ag, 
V. aluv-Eg. 



6 Satfxcjv, " ^Ae deity. '^ 



Dual. 
N. rcj 6aLfj,ov-E, 
G. roiv dai^ov-oiVy 
D. roiv Sai/LLov-OLv, 
A. TO) daifioV'Ey 
V. datfiov-E. 

6 Xscjv, " ^Ae Z20W." 

N. rw 7iEovT'Ey 
G. rotv Aeovr-oiv, 
D. ro?v /Ifcovr-oiv, 
A. rw "keovT-Ey 
V. Xiovr-E. 



Plural. 
N. ot daliiov-Eg, 
G. rwv 6aiju6v-o)Vf 
D. rolg dacjuo-Gi,,^ 
A. roi'f daifiov-ag, 
V. Saljuov-Eg. 



Plural. 
N. Oi TiEOvT'Eg, 

G. TCbv TlEOVT- CdVy 

D. roif 'kiov-ai^^ 
A. roi;f MovT-agy 
V. Aeovr-ff. 



1. We have placed the paradigms before the remarks on the formation 
of the cases, an arrangement less repulsive to the learner than the other 
would have been ; though, in strictness, the remarks on the cases ought 
to come first. 

2. Old form alC)v-Giy whence, by rejecting v before a, we have alu-at. 

3. Old form Saifiov-GLy whence, by rejecting v before cr, and retaining 
the short vowel of the root, we have dai/Lto-Gt. 

4. Old form MovT-at, whence, by rejecting the vr and changing o into 
oVy we have Tiiov-cn. 





THIRD DECLENSION. 31 


i] XalXaip, " the storm'' 


Singular. 
N. y Tiatkaip, 
G. TTjg /latAttTT-of, 
D". Ty TiailaiT-i^ 
A. TT]v TiailaTz-a^ 
V. T^xuXaip. 


Dual. 
N. ra AciAaTT-f, 
G. Talv XaiAdn-OLv, 
D. ratv 'kaikdii-oiVy 
A. Ta XaildTT-e, 


N. at laiXaTV-eg, 
G. rcji' 'kaikd'K-QVy 
D. ra^f %a'ika'\\)-iy^ 
A. Tag lailaTT-agj 
V. ?iaL/ia7r-eg, 


rj TTrepv^, " the wing,'' 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 


N. 7J TTTepV^y 

G. TTJg TCTepvy-ogy 

D. Ty TTTSpvy-L, 
A. T7]V TTTepvy-Gy 

V. TTTSpV^. 


N. Ta wTepvy-e, 

G. rC?!^ TTTSpVy-OLV, 

D. raZ"!^ TTTspvy-oLv, 
A. Tit TTTspvy-e, 
V. TTTspvy-e. 


N, G^ TTTspvy-eg. 
G. rwi' TTTepvy-cjVj 
D. raif TTTepv^-t,^ 
A. raf TTTepvy-ag, 
Y. TTTspvy-eg. 


6 epcjg, " the love^ 


Singular. Dual. PluraL 


N. 6 epug, 
G. roi> epcoT-og, 

D. Tip apUT't, 
A. TOV epUT-Gy 


N. rw epoT-s, 
G. roii^ hpQT-oLv, 
D. roii^ kpuT-oLVj 

A. TG) £pO)T-£, 

V. epoT-e. 


N. ot epDT-eg, 
G. ra3^' epd)T-(jJv, 
D. ro^c EpQ-Gi,^ 
A. Tovg epoT-ag, 
V. epQT-eg, 


6 ifidg, " i/ie thong." 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 


N. 6 i/tac, 
G. TOV IjbidvT-og, 

D. Tip IjLtdvT-L, 

A. TOV IpdvT-ay 
V. Ifidv. 


N. ra> IjLidvT-ef 
G. roii' IjidvT-oiv, 
D. roii' IjLidvT-ocv, 

A. TQ lp,dvT-€, 

V. IjLidvT-e. 


N. ol l/LLdvT-eg, 
G. rwT^ lp,dvT-G)v, 

A. Tovg IfidvT-agj 
V. IfLavT-eg. 


7] (j)dXay^, '^ the phalanx/^ 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 


N. 7/ ^dXay^y 
G. Trig (l>d?.ayy-og, 
D. Ty <pd?Myy-L, 
A. T7]v (l)d?,ayy-a, 
V. (l>d?My^. 


N. Ttt d^dXayy-Zy 
G. ra?v (^aXdyy-oiVy 
D. raiv (paXdyy-OLVy 
A. ra (pdXayy-e, 
V. (pdTiayy-e. 


N. at (j)d%ayy-eg, 
G. rwa^ <pa7idyy-G)Vy 
D. ra?f (l)dXayt'i,^ 
A. Tag (jidlayy-ag^ 
V. (pdTiayy-eg. 


1. Old fonri lailaTZ-c 
have /laD.aip-L. 

2. Old form nrepvy- 

TZTEpV^-i. 

3. Old form epor-at, ^ 

4. Old form IfidvT-at. 

5. Old form ^aAayy-c 


n, whence, by substitutir 
CTi, whence, by substitut 
whence, by rejecting r be 


ig the double letter, we 
ing f for yr? we have 
jfore 0", we have ^pcj-ac. 



32 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



Singular. 
N. 6 a^wf, 
G. Tov d-o-Scj 
D. TU) -d-cD-tj 
A. TOV -d-u-a^ 



6 T^wf, " the jackal.^ 

Dual. 
N. r(x) '&C)-e, 
G. ro?!^ -d-u-oLVy 
D. roiv '&6'0tVj 
A. TC) -d^tj-e, 
V. i^w-e. 



Plural, 
G. rwv i^w-wv, 
A. rovg i^u-a^y 



.Singular, 
N. 6 /cif, 
G. Toi) /ct-6f, 

D. TG) KL-U 

A. rw /ci-v, 



6 Kcg, " the wood-worm.^^ 



Dual. 

N. TO) KC-e, 

G. ro?v Kt-oiv, 
D. roiv KL-olv, 
A. TO) Kt-e, 
•V. Ki-e. 



Plural. 

N. 0^ /Ct-£f, 

G. rwv Kt-cjVy 
I), roif /ci-ff/, 
A. roi'f /ci-af, 
V. Ki-eg. 



TO a(x)[ia, ^' the hody.'^'* 





Singular. 




Dual 


Plural. 


N. 


TO GUfiaj 


N. 


Tu (y6fiaT-€j 


N. TO, GUfiar-a, 


G. 


TOV au/iaT-oCj 


G. 


TOlv GOjLLaT-ObVj 


G. Tibv GCOfiaT'COVy 


D. 


TU aufiaT-Lj 


D. 


Tolv aa)fidT-otv, 


D. TOlg Gidfia-GLy^ 


A. 


TO acbfia, 


A. 


TG) GO)fiaT-ey 


A. TO, GUfLiar-a, 


y. 


Gibfia. 


V. 


GUfzaT-e. 


V. GcofiaT-a. 



Examples for Exercise in Declension. 



Nam. 
71 Gap^y 

6 GUTTjp^ 
6 KT/pV^j 

V'&pL^y 

TO ^Of , 

7J <J)L?.6t7}^, 

TO [Sov?.evjua, - 

TO jLL£?.Ly 

7] TTsXetdg, 

7] Kopvg, 

6 ytya^j 

6 6(hv^j 

6 Xaiy^, 

i] adTiTTLy^j 



Gen. 



Nam. 



Gen. 



bnoc, 


the mice. 


6 dva^j 


-ClKTOg, 


the king. 


GapKOCy 


the flesh. 


7j oKq, 


d'kbgy 


the sea. 


'TTJpOC, 


the preserver. 


6 ijjaTiTTjpf 


'fipoq, 


the harper. 


'VKog, 


the herald. 


V f>k, 


l>lvbq, 


the nose. 


-oyoc, 


the flame. 


6 x^^i^f^T^, 


-Qvog, 


the storm. 


TpCXOCy 


the hair. 


6 ipdp, 


i)ap6g, 


•the starling. 


^g)t6c, 


the light. 


6 Xifzrjv, 


-evoQ, 


the harbour. 


-Tr]TOC, 


the friendship. 


6 UKI10)Vj 


-ovog. 


the anvil. 


-aTOc, 


the counsel. 


7]^ vv^, 


VVKTOC 


the night. 


-LTOg, 


the honey. 


TO TTVp, 


Tcvpog^ 


the fire. 


'ddog, 


the dove. 


7/ Pia/zTraf, 


-adof, 


the torch. 


-vOor, 


the helmet. 


fldpTVp, 


-vpog, 


the witness. 


-avTO^f 


the giant. 


6 pT/TCOp, 


-opog, 


the orator. 


'OVTog, 


the tooth. 


6 Kopa^y 


-aKOCf 


the raven. 


'lyyoq, 


the pebble. 


7j dTidinr]^, 


-e/cof, 


the fox. 


'lyyoq, 


the trumpet. 


TO ovg, 


o)t6c, 


the ear. 



1. Old form GUfiaT-Gi. 



FORMATION OF THE CASES. 33 

FORMATION OF THE CASES. 
Genitive. 

As a general rule, the genitive singular of nouns of the 
third declension is formed by adding og to the termination 
of the root, such changes taking place, at the same time, 
as the laws of euphony require. 

1. Some nouns, and chiefly those which, in the nomina- 
tive, end in v or p, form the genitive by adding og to the 
termination of the nominative ; as, jjltjv, " a month, ^^ gen. 
U7]v-6g ; ocjTrjp^ " a preserver, ^^ gen. acoTTJp-og, &Lc. In the 
greater part, however, the long vowel in the termination of 
the nominative is changed into the corresponding short 
vowel ; as, /U/i^i', " a harbour,^^ gen. Xiiiev-og ; fJ^rjrrjp, " a 
mother, "^^ gen. }ji7]Tsp'0g ; x^^^^^^^ " ^ swallow,''^ gen. %£Ai- 
66v-og, &c. 

2. "When the nominative already has a final g, this final 
letter disappears before the og of the genitive, and the long 
vowel preceding it in the termination of the nominative is 
changed into its corresponding short ; as, rpcfjpTjg, " a tri- 
reme^'' gen. rpifjpsog, &c. 

3. When the nominative ends in a double consonant, 
such as ^ (which is equivalent to yg, fcg^ or x^) ^^ ^ 
(equivalent to ^g, irg^ or (pg), the double consonant is re- 
solved into its component parts, the termination og is ad- 
ded, and the g, or final letter of the root, is thrown out ; as, 
al^, '- a goat,^' resolved into ah/g, genitive aly-og ; aXdonrj^, 
*^ a fox,^^ resolved into dkdjrrrjKg, genitive (with the short 
vowel also for the long) dAcoTig/c-o^. So, also, dpc^, " hair" 
{rptxg), gen. rpix-og ; (pXs-ip, " a vein" ((l)Xsj3g), gen. ^le^- 
og ; (x)xj), ''an eye" (wtt^), gen. ^tt-o^ ; KaTr\ku\\), ^' a roof" 
{fcarrjXKbg), gen. fiarrjXLcp-og. In like manner, (j)dXay^, " a 
phalanx" (^(pdXayyg), gen. (j)d?\.ayy-og ; Xdpvy^, " the larynx" 
i^^dpvyyg), gen. Xdpvyy-og} 



L Sometimes, instead of these, which were the regular forms, we find 
them with only a single y ; as, (pdpvyo^, Od. 9, 373 ; Eurip. Cycl. 
592. So 'AapvyGc^ Schweigk. ad Athen. vol. iv., p. 545. But Xvy^ 
^' the lynx,^^ has both /^.vy/cof and ?.vyy6g. So, also, vv^ and ava^ make 
vvKToc and avanrog, the r being a part of the root {vvkot) of the former, 
and, in the case of the latter, being brought in probably to strengthen 



34 FORMATION OF THE CASES. 

4. Nominatives in dg, etg, and ovg, being, for the most 
part, formed from roots ending in avrg, evrg, ovrg (where 
the V and r are thrown out, and the preceding short vowel 
is either made long or else is changed into a diphthong), 
have their genitives in avrog, evrog, or ovrog. Thus, eXe- 
(pag, " an elephanV^ (root eXecpavrg), genitive kXe(f)avT-og : 
I^L[i6sLg, " the river Simo'is^^ (root Icfioevrg), gen. liiiioevT- 
og ; 66ovg, " a tooth''' (root odovrg), gen. d66vr-og. 

5. Words which end in a, t, v, add the syllable rog to 
the termination of the nominative, and thus form the geni- 
tive case ; as, oojfia, " a body,^^ genitive aG)[iaT-og ; jusXt, 
" honey, '^^ gen. fueXcT'Og. Those in v change also this vowel 
into a before rog ; as, dopv, " a spear,^^ gen. dopar-og ; 
yovv, " a knee,^^ gen. yovar-og. In strictness, however, 
these nouns in a, t, v come from roots that terminate in r ; 
as, aojfiaT, fieXir : and hence og is only added, in fact, to 
the root. While with regard to the vowel-change in yovv^ 
dopv, and other words of similar ending, it must be borne 
in mind that the old nominatives were in ag, as yovag, 66- 
pag (i. e. yovarg, doparg), whence, of course, the geni- 
tives yovar-og and dopar-og, by dropping the final g of the 
root.^ 

6. Words in ap make either arog in the genitive ; as, 
bvecap, " a dream,^^ gen. oveiar-og ; ^Trap, " the liver, ^^ gen. 
Tjirar-og ; rjiiap, " a day,^^ gen. TJfiar-og ; (jypeap, " a well,^^ 
gen. (f)p6ar-og ; or else apog ; as, sap, '^ spring, ^^ gen. eap- 
og ; '&£vap, " the palm of the hand,^^ gen. '^evap-og. But 66- 
[lap makes ddfiapr-og, 

7. Neuters in dg make partly arog ; as, fcpeag, ^'fiesh,^ 
genitive tcpear-og ; aepag, " a horn,^^ gen. fcepar-og. More 
commonly, however, they form the genitive in aog ; as, 
KVE(bag, " darkness, ^^ gen. Kve(pa-og, in which case the At- 
tics contract the termination aog into cog; as, Kepojg, upe- 
(j)g, &c. 

the root avaa, after the removal of the g. From the regular declension 
of ava^ (i. e., avan-og in the genitive, &c.) comes "Avatceg, the name 
of Castor and Pollux ; while, on the other hand, the obhque cases of 
noz in Latin show the t of the root. Compare the German nacht and 
the English night. 

1. Matthia, G. G. vol. i., ^ 72, 1. The noun yaka, '' mz'ZA;," makes 
ya}.aKT-oc^ as from ydJ.a^ (i. e., yaXanTq) ; aivrjni^ ^^ mustardy'' makes, 
according to ^ 11, Gcvr/7rt-og, and in Attic acvr/Tre-cog -, ugtv, ''^acity^'*^ 
makes aere-og, Att. (xGre-cog. Other nouns in v also vary frojii the rule 
above given ; as, ddapv, " a tear,'''' gen. 6dKpv-0£, &;c, 



FORMATION OF THE CASE&. 35 

8. Nominatives in avg make aog and Tjog ; as vavg, " a 
ship,^^ gen. vaog and vrjog^ 

9. Nominatives in ecg, different from those mentioned in 
^ 4, make the genitive in evog ; as, fcrstg, " a comb,''^ gen. 
KTSV'Og ; or in ecdog ; as tiXtig, " a Itey^'' gen. KXEi^og, 

10. Nominatives in 7]g^ other than those alluded to under § 
2, make the genitive in TyToq and ?y0o^ ; as, (^iXorrig^ '-^friend- 
ship,^'' gen. (pLX6T'i]T'0g ; iT£V'j]g, " (^ poor man,^^ gen. irevrjT- 
og ; 'n.dpv7]gj '' a moimtain on the confines of Atticay^ gen. 
Udpvrjd-og. Here again o^ is added to the termination of 
the roots, (f)LX6T7]Tg, Trevrjrg, Sic. 

11. Nominatives in eg make the genitive in tog, tdog, 
Zdog, trog, and tvog. The Attics, however, changed tog 
into ecjg. Thus, ocpig, " a serpent,^^ gen. b^i-og (Att. o0£- 
<i)g) ; eXixig^ " liope^^ gen. eAmJ-o^ ; opi'^^, " a 5z>c^," gen. 
opvW^og ; %«p^^, " a favour, ^^ gen. ;]^ap^T-o^ ; durig, " 65 ^e(3!m 
o/" ^Ae ^-wn," gen. durlv-og. All these terminations, like 
those mentioned in the preceding paragraph, are only og 
added to the several roots. 

12. Neuters in og make the genitive in eog, which the 
Attics contract into ovg ; as, relxog, " a loall,^'' gen. reixs-og, 
contr. reix-ovg. 

13. Words in ovg, other than those mentioned under § 4, 
make the genitive in oog ; as, (iovg, " «/i (?.a?," gen. po-og. 
Some again, when ovg arises by contraction from oeig, 
gen. oevTog, make the genitive in ovvrog ; as, ^Onovg, " the 
name of a city,^^ gen. 'Orcovvr-og. So, also, Tpafre^ovg, 
[leXiTOvg, &DC. 

14. Words in v§ make the genitive in vxog ; as, dicjpv^, 
*' a canal,^^ gen. (5i63pi;;\;-o^. Others have 2;yo^ ; as, ^rv^, 

the river Styx,^'' gen. liTvy-og. 

15. Words in vg make 7;o^ ; as, oo^vg, " ^Tze loins, ^^ gen. 
oacpv-og ; ^f)i)^, " a free," gen. (5pf-o^ ; and sometimes v6og, 
vOog, and i;i^o^ ; as, %Aa|(/i;^, " a doak,^^ gen. ;\;Aafti;(^-of ; 
Kopvg, " a helmet,^'^ gen. fc6pvd-og ; fcojfjLvg, " « hundle,^^ gen. 
KG)fj.vd-og ; ^opuvg, " Phorcys,^^ gen. ^opuvv-og. 

16. Words in w^ make wo^, wro^, oo^ (contr. ov^), and 
OTO^. Thus, d|Li(o^, " a slave,^^ gen. d^w-o^ ; ^p^^, " « 
Aero," gen. rjpGy-og ; 0w^, " light,^^ gen. ((x^jrog ; epG)g, " ^ot?e,^' 
gen. epo)T'Og ; aWcG^, '^ modesty, '^^ gen. aM6-o^, contr. aM- 
ovg* ; TSTVipojg, perf act. participle of Ti;7rr6>, gen. tetv^- 
OT-og. 



36 FORMATION OF THE CASES, 



Accusative. 

As a general rule, the accusative singular of nouns of 

the third declension, that are not neuter, is formed by 

changing of of the genitive into a \ as, /l6?]v, gen, firjV'og^ 
accus. firfv-a, 

1. But nouns in ig^ vg, avg,s,nd ov^, whose genitive ends 
in og pure, take v instead of a ; as, rroXLg, " a city^'^ gen. 
ixoXi-og^ ace. 'no'kiv ; vavg^ " a ship^^'' gen, va-og, ace. vavv ; 
Povg, " an OcT," gen. (36-og, ace. j3ovv, Sic. 

2. Other nouns in tg, vg, &c., whose genitive ends in og 
impure, and which have no accent on the last syllable of 
the nominative, make the accusative in a and v, the latter 
particularly with the Attics. Thus, opvcg, " a hirdy^ gen. 
bpvid-og, ace. bpvcd-a, Att. opvcv ; tcXelg, " a key^^^ gen. 
nXEid-ogj ace. nXeld-a, Att. aXelv, So the compounds of 
TTOvg ; as, ppadvnovg, " slow offoot^^ ace. (3pa6vTTod-a, Att. 
j3pa6v7Tovv ; OMtTTOf ^, " CEdipus^'' aec. OW/7rod-a. Att. 06- 

SiTTOVV. 

Vocative. 

The vocative of the third declension is generally like the 
nominative ; and this is particularly the case among the 
Attic writers ; as, 6 i9?/p, " the wild beast,^^ voc. 'Srjp ; 
X^^Py " i^^ hand" voc. X^^P- 

1. But the endings evg, tg, vg, as also the words Tzalg, 
" a hoy," ypavg, " an aged female," and \3ovg, " aw ox," cast 
off their ^ to form the vocative, and those in evg then as- 
sume the circumflex ; as, PaacXevg, " a king," voc. pamX- 
ev ; Udpcg, ''Paris," voc. Udp-c ; Trjdvg, " Tethys," voc. 
T7]0'V ; Tzalg, voc. rra?; ypavg, voc. ypav ; /3oi;^, voc. jGJov. 
Other nouns in ovg more frequently retain than drop the 
g. Thus, OldiTT'Ov is found ; but OldiTTOvg is more com- 
mon. 

2. Words in a^ and etg, which arise from old forms end- 
ing in avg and evg, and which form their genitive in avog, 
avTog, or evrog, throw away g in the vocative, and then, for 
the most part, resume the v ; as, rdXagy " miserable" gen. 



FORMATION OF THE CASES. 37 

rd^aV'Og, voc. rdXav ; Atag, " Ajax,"^^ gen, Aiavr-og, voc. 
Alav ; x^P^^^^i " graceful/^ gen. x^P^^'^'^'^^^ ^C)c. ;\;ap/ev. 
But several proper names in a^, avrog, have in the voca- 
tive only the long a; as, 'ArXag, gen. "ArAai^r-o^, voc. 

3. Words which have ?/ or o) in the termination of the 
nominative, and the corresponding short vowel (e or o) in 
the genitive, and which have no acute accent on the last 
syllable, take the short vowel also in the vocative ; as, ^rj- 
rrjp, '' a mother,'^^ gen. fiTjrep-og, voc. fxr/rep ; prjrcjp, " an 
orator^ gen. p7]Top-og, voc. prjrop ; I^cofcpdrrjg, " Socrates,''^ 
gen. XojKpdr-eog, voc. liCJfcpareg. If, however, the last 
syllable of such words has the accent, then the long vowel 
is retained in the vocative ; as, notfirjv, '' a shepherd,^^ gen. 
7roLfjisv-og, voc. rroLjJLrjv. But this only applies to nouns, 
not to adjectives, and hence fcsXacve^rjg makes in the voca- 
tive iieXaiVE(peg. 

4. Words which retain the long vowel in the genitive 
keep it also in the vocative ; as, JlXdroyv, " Plato,^^ gen. 
UXdrcjV'Og, voc. IlXdr-cjv ; 'Eevocpcov, " Xenophon^'' gen. 
*Z,EVO(^(hvT'Og^ voc. 'Esvo(l)-G)v ; irjrrjp, " a physician ^^^ gen. 
IrjTTjp-og, voc. Irjr-rjp. But the following three make the 
vowel short in the vocative ; 'AnoXXcjv, " Apollo,^^ gen. 
'ArroXXcjjv-og, voc. 'Arro?^X-ov ; Ilo(jeL6(x)v, " Neptune, ^^ gen. 
ILo(78L6G)V'Og, voc. n6(7£i(5-oz^ ; (jcjrrjp, " a saviour,^^ gen. 
aooTTjp-og, voc. OGJrep, 

5. Proper names in /^/l?)^ make -KXetg in the termination 
of the vocative; as, 'NLKOfcXrjg, voc. ^LfcofcX-ecg. Here the 
nominative was originally -KXs7]g^ and consequently the vo- 
cative is -fcXeeg, contracted nXeig. 

6. Words in 6) and co^ make oi in the vocative ; as, ArjT(o, 
'^ Latona,''! voc. Arfr-ol ; Harri^o), " Sappho,''^ voc. liOncp-ol ; 
aldojg, " modesty ^"^ voc. aW-oZ. 

Dative Plural 
The dative plural in nouns which end in st;^, avf , and 
ov^, is formed by appending t to the termination of the 
nominative singular ; as, PaacXevg, j3aaiXev(Tt ; vavg, vaV' 
CL I l3ovg, [3ovaL In the case of other nouns, the dative 
plural is formed by adding ot to the root, such changes 
being at the same time made as the rules of euphony re- 

D 



38 CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION- 

quire ; as, vv^, gen. WKr-og, dat. pi. vv^l (i. e. vvKrcrC) ; 
ddovg, gen. odovr-og, dat. pi. ddovac (i. e. ddovrdc) ; iral^y 
gen. Tvacd'Og^ dat. pi. rraiOL (i. e. TraiSai) ; "Apai/j, gen. 
^'Apad'Og, dat. pi. ''Apaipt (i. e. ''Apaf^ai) ; rvneig, gen. 
rvnevT'Og, dat. pi. rvnelac, (i. e. rvnevrai) ; Kretg, gen. 
/erei^-d^, dat. pi. /crscr/ (i. e. Krevac)j &c. 

1. When the ending cr^, on being added to the root, m 
preceded by a vowel, or, in other words, when the genitive 
ends in og pure, this vowel remains in the dative plural un- 
changed, as in the other oblique cases ; as, relxog, gen. 
reixs-og, dat. pi. reix^oi ; dpvg^ gen. dpv-og^ dat. pi. dpvoLV ; 
d^Tjdrjg, gen. akfjOe-og, dat. pi. aXrjdeot. When, however, 
the nominative singular has a diphthong, the dative plural 
takes it also ; as, pamXevg, gen. j3aaiXe-G)g, dat. pi. (daoiX- 
£VGL, and the other nouns mentioned in the beginning of 
the previous paragraph. 

2. Some nouns in rjp, gen. spog, drop the e in the geni- 
tive and dative singular, and also in the dative plural, and 
then, in the latter case, insert after p the more sonorous a; 
as, rrarrjp, " a father,'^ gen. narp-og (from Trarep-og), dat. 
'irarpi (from Trarep-t), &c., dat. pi. narpaGi, So, also, p^^- 
TT/p, yaarrjp, 'dvydr7]p, ArjfjirjTrjp. 

CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
1. Nouns in 7/^ undergo contraction in every case, except 
in the nominative and vocative singular, and dative plural. 
Thus: 

rj rptrjprig, " the trireme,^^ 

Dual. Plural. 





Singular. 




N. 


7f rpt^p-vCj 




G. 


T7ig rpirjp-eog, 


'OVCy 


D. 


TTj Tp/j/p-ei'., 


'Etj 


A. 


TTJV Tpl^p-EGy 


-V, 


V. 


TpL^p'£C' 





N. ra TpLTjp-ee^ -7f. 

G. TOtv TpiTJp-eOLVy -ocv, 

D. ralv TpcTjp-EOiv, -olv, 
A. TCL Tptr/p-eey -y, 
V. TpLrjp-eey -rj. 



N. al TpL7/p-E€Cj 'ECCj 
G. TCJV Tpt7/p-£0)Vj'(OVf 

D. Tate Tptyp-eatj 

A. Tag TpLTJp-eagj -eif, 

V. TpLTJp-eegj -etg. 



2. Like rptripTjg B,Ye also declined the proper names end- 
ing in KXsTjg ; as, 'VLpaKXeTjg, contracted ^HpafcXrjg ; Bsfica' 
TOfcXrjg, TlEpLfcXrjg, &c. In the dative they have a double 
contraction. Thus : 



CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 39 

6 ^HpaicXerjg^ " Hercules.^ 

N. 6 '^pnKTc-erjg^ -jjCy 

G. Tov 'H/DG/c/l-eof, -ovg^ 

D. rC) 'KpaKX-eei, -eei, -eif 

A. Tcrv 'Hpa/cA-ea, -^, 

3. Nouns in o^ are neuter, and make the nominative, ac- 
cusative, and vocative plural in ea, contracted 7], and the 
genitive ia icov^ contracted wi'. Thus: 







TO relxo^y " the wall. 


? 






Singular. 




Dual 


P^wraZ. 




N. 


TO Telx-oc, 




N. TO) TELx-ee, -?;, 


N. Ta TELx-£a, 


-'7, 


G. 


TOV Teix-eog, 


'OV^, 


G. TOiV TBLX-SOLV, -OLV, 


G. rc5v TELX-EidVy 


-a>v, 


D. 


T(j reix-ei, 


-£i, 


D. Tolv TELX-eotv, -OIV, 


D. ro?f TEiX'Eai^ 




A. 


TO Telx-oc, 




A. rw TEcx-ee, -jj, 


A. rd re/;j;-ea, 


-??, 


V. 


Tdx-(K' 




V. T£Lx-ee, -7]. 


V. r-f/j^-fo, 


-??. 



4. Nouns in <o and fe>^ have three contractions, namely, 
oo<; of the genitive singular into oi;^, ol of the dative into 
ol^ and oa of the accusative into w. Their dual and plural 
have no contractions, but are declined throughout like the 
corresponding parts of X6yo(;. Few of them, indeed, from 
their signification, admit, strictly speaking, of a dual or 
plural. Thus : 



Singular. 
G. TJjg rix-oQCt -ov^^ 
A. Tfjv TjX'Oa^ -w^ 



7} fjxcj, " the echcL?^ 

Dual. 

N. TO. Tix-^t 
G. Talv 7/x-ocv, 
D. Talv Tjx-olv^ 
A. Ta i^x-Ld^ 
V. riXr(J^ 



BluraL 

N. at ijX'OLy 
G. tC)v Tjx-i^v, 

A. Tag VX-ovg_, 



N. 

Jo. 

D. 
A. 



vj acScjg, " ^^e rm^destyJ^ 



Singular. 

T^f Sid-do^, -ovc, 

TTjl alS-OL, 'Ol, 

TTjv alS'Oa^ -6>, 
cu6-oi. 



Dual.' 
N. ra ald-6, 
G. Ttttv aM-o?v, 
D. rati' al6-olVj 
A. rd cM-6), 
V. ci(J-w. 



Plural. 
N. at ald'otj 
,G. Tcjv ald-cjv^ 
D. ratf alS-olCy 
A. rd^- aid-ovgy 
V. ald-nL 



40 



CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



5. Nouns in tg and t have three contractions, namely, el 
of the dative into ei, eeg of the nominative and vocative 
phiral into etg, and eag of the accusative plural into etg. 
Those in Lg have also in the genitive singular, and the gen- 
itive and dative dual, the Attic terminations ecog and ewv, 
instead of eog and eoiv. Thus : 



Singular. 

G. T7J^ 7roPi,-£G)f, 

D. ry TToX-eiy -ei, 

A. T7JV TToX-tVj 



7] noXcg, " the city. 

Dual. 
N. ra TTol-eEj 
G. ralv noTi-euv, 
D. Talv TToX-euv, 
A. ra 'KoX-tEy 



N. at nol-SEg, -eig^ 

G. TL)V 'KoX-ECdVf 

D. raiff 7r6/l-£(7£, 

A. rag iroX-eag, -etgy 

V. 7z67i,-eegy -eig^ 



Singular, 

N. TO atVT/7T-ty 

G. row GLvrjn-eog, 
D. Toi cLvi^TT'ely -et, 

A. TO clvTj'K-i, 
V. civ7]7T-t. 



TO Givrjin, " ^Ae mustard P 

Dual. 

N. TO) civrjTT-ee, 
G. roiv (JivTiTT-eocVf 
D. rotv Givrjn-eoiv, 
A. rw GLvrjTC-ee^ 
V. civTJn-ee. 



Plural. 
N. ra aivrjiT-ea, 
G. ra)v GLvrjTT-euVf 
D. roif GiV7]TT-eaiy 
A. ra aivr/TT-eay 

V. OLVTJTT'Ea. 



6. Nouns in i;^, gen. vo^, have two contractions, name- 
ly, f ef of the nominative and vocative plural into ?;^, and 
I'af of the accusative plural into v^. Thus : 



Singular, 

G. roO Ix^-vpry 
D. tC) ixO-viy 
A. rov /;t^"'^^> 
V. Ix^'V, 



6 IxBvgy " tlie jish.^^ 

Dual. 

N. ro) Ixd-vSj 
G. ro?v IxO-voLV, 
D. roti' t;\;^-'i;oiv, 
A. rw lxQ-v£y 



Plural. 
N. o2 lx6-v€g, -vf, 
G. rwv i;^^-t'6;v, 
D. roif Lxd-vGLy 
A. rov^ txO-vagy -vf, 
V. IxQ-vegy -v^. 



7, Nouns in ev^, and those in vg which make, like them, 
the genitive in eoyg, have four contractions, namely, et of 
the dative singular into et, es of the dual into rj, eeg of the 
nominative and vocative plural into eig, and eag of the ac- 
cusative plural into eeg. But in the last case the uncoxii^ 
tracted eag is the more usual form. Thus : 



CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



41 



6 (iaoiXev^, " the king,^^ 



Singular. 

G. Tov /SaGi/.-eog, 
D. ru paat7.-£i, -ely 
A. TOV (iaatX-eay 



Dual. 

N. TO) (iaaiA-eSy -y, 
G. roiv jiaGL%-eoiVy 
D. roiv j3aaL?.-£0Lv, 

A. TO f3il(7L/.-£e, -fjy 



Plural, 

N. ol (3acn?.-££c, -ecCj 

G. TCJV j3aGU-EG)Vy 

D. ro?f j3aaL/L-£VGLy 
A. 7oi)f (SaaL?.-£ar^ -eTq, 

V. (SaGL/.-££C, -£ig. 



8. Neuters in v make the nominative, accusative, and 
vocative plural in ea, contracted into tj. They also con- 
tract £L into eij and e£ into ?;. Thus : 



Singular, 

N. TO aGT-V, 

G. roi; dcrr-eof, 

D. 74) dGT-£L, -et, 

A. 70 acr7-v, 
V. a(T7-t;.. 



TO a(7Ti;, " the city." 

Dual. 

N. Tu ac77-ee, -^, 

G. 702'^' CLGT-kOiVy 
D. TOiV CLGT-ioLVy 
A. 7W UGT-££^ -^, 
V. aGT-££y -fl. 



Plurd. 
N, 7a; uGT-£ay -37, 

G. 7W1' CCGT-ECOV, 

D. rolg aGT-£Giy 
A. 7a aGT-Ea, -rj, 
V. aGT-Ea^ -7j, 



9. Neuters in a^ pure and paf reject r by syncope in 
the Ionic dialect, and are also farther contracted by crasis 
in the Attic, in every case except the nominative, accusa- 
tive, and vocative singular, and the dative plural. Thus ; 

TO fcpeag, '' the fie sh,^^ 

Singular. 

Ts. 70 Kpi-ag, 

G. 70U KpE-aroCj by syncope Kpi-aog, by crasis Kps-o)g» 



D. 76J Kp£-aTty . , . 


. Kpi-alj . . 


. «:/)£>. 


A. 70 KpE-ag. 






Y. Kp£-ac, 






Dual 






N. TO) Kp£-aTe, . . . 

G. TOLV fip£-dTOLVf . . 
D. TOLV Kp£-dTOLVy . . 


. Kpi-ae, . 
. Kp£-doiv, 

. KpE'doLV, 


. KpE'CiV. 
. ■ KpE'iJV. 


A. 7CJ Kp£-aT£, . . . 


. Kp£-a£y . 


. /cpe-a. 


V. Kp£-aTE, . . . 


. Kp£-a£y . 


. Acp£-a. 


Plural. 






N. 70; Kpk-ara^ . . 
G. TLJV KpE'drov, . . 
D. TolgKpk-aGL. 


. Kpi-aa, . 

. KpE-doVy . 


. . /cpi-a. 

. . Kpe-uv. 


A. TO, Kpe-aray . . 
V. Kpi-arCj . . 


. Kpi-aa^ . 
. Kpi-acj . 


. . /cpe-a. 
. . Acp^-a. 



42 CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



TO Kspag, " the horn.^^ 

Singular, 
N. TO Kep-ag. 

G. Tov KEp-arog^ by syncope Kep-aog, by crasis Kep-u^. 
D. rC) KEp-atLj .... Kep-aiy . . . /cep-^. 
A. rd Kep-ag. 
V. Kep-ag. 

Dual. 

N. TO) Kep-aTEy . 
G. Tolv Kep-droLVf 
D. roiv Ksp-droLv, 
A. rcj Kcp^arSy . 
V. Kep-aT£f . 

PZwra/. 
N. to; Kep-ara, 
TCJV Kep-aTQV, 



G 



KEp'aSf . 


. . /C£/)-ff. 


KEp'doiV, 


. KEp'Cyv: 


KEp^doiV, 


. KEp-UV 


KEp-aEf . 


. /cep-a. 


KEp-ae, . 


. /c£/)-a. 


KEp-aa, , 


. /c^/9-a. 


tcep-di^Vj 


. KEp-UV 


KEp-aay . 


. KEp-a. 


KEp-attj , 


. KEp-a. 



D. toXq KEp-ant. 
A. rd Ksp-ara, 
V. KEp-ara, 

10. Some words in ^yp, genitive -epoc, throw away the s 
before p in the genitive and dative, and so exhibit a double 
form. After the letter v, when it is brought into collisioa 
with p in such forms, a (J is added in order to soften the 
sound. The noun Trarrjp is an instance of the first mode 
of declining, the noun dvrjp of the second. Thus : 



6 


TTarrjp, " the father. 


551 


Singular. 


Dual. 


P/i^ra/. 


N. 6 7rar-^p, 


N. TO) Tcar-EpE, 


N. ot Trar-Epeg^ 


G. TOV Trar-epof, -poCj 


G. Tolv Tvar-Epoiv., 


G. rwv rrar-EpcoVy -puv 


D. T(J IZaT-EpLy 'pi, 


D. TolvKar-EpoLv, 


D. roif Ttar-pdaiy 


A. TOV irar-Epay 


A. TO) Tzar-EpE, 


A. rovf irar-Epag, 


V. Tcdr-Ep. 


V. irar-EpE. 


V. TtaT'Epsg, 



1. In the same way are declined /Ltr/rijp, " a mother,^^ and yaarrjp, " a 
stomach,^^ except that yaarrjp makes in the dative plural yaarfipGi, which 
appears to have been also the old form of Tzarrjp and firjrrjp. It must 
be remembered, moreover, that -Karrjp, firjrrip^ and yaaTr/p make the ac- 
cusative singular without contraction. This is done in the case of fiy- 
Trip, to prevent its being confounded with firirpa, -ng, *' a womb ;" in the 
case of Tcarr/py to prevent its being confounded with irdrpa, -ag, *' a fa- 
ternai land ;" and in yaarr/p, to prevent similar confusion with ydoTpa, 
-af, ** the bottom of a vessel^ 



ANOMALOUS FORMS OP THE THIRD DECLENSION. 43 



avfjp, 



' the manJ^ 



Singular. 

N. 6 aV'TJp, 
O. Tov dv-Epog, -SpS^, 
D. Tu av^epL, -6pty 
A. TOV av-epa, -Spa, 
V. av-ep. 



Dual 
N. TO) aV'Spe, 'Spe, 
G. Totv av^epoiVy -Spoiv, 
D. Totv av^epOLVf -Spotv, 
A. TG) av-epe, -^p^) 



Plural 

N. ol av-epeg, -SpeCf 
G. TQV aV'spcjVj -dpoVf 
D. Totg dv-Spdac, 
A. Tovg dv-epag, -dpag. 



V. dv-epe, -dpe. V. dv-epeg, Speg, 



11. Some nouns are contracted by either dropping a 
vowel, or blending two vowels into one, and this contrac- 
tion takes place in every case. Thus : 



TO sap, contr. TJp, 
" the spring J^ 

Singular. 
N. TO sap, TJp, 
O. TOV eap-og, vp^Ci 
D. TU) eap'i, Tjpty &c. 



o Keveojv, contr. aevCyv^ 
" the belly.'' 

Singular. 

N. 6 KEVe6v, KEVCJV, 

G. TOV KEVe^UVOCj KEV'CJVOg, 

D. TGJ KEVE-WVC, KEV-Qvty &C. 



ANOMALOUS FORMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

1. That is called anomalous which is inconsistent with 
the prescribed laws of formation ; as, for example, when 
X^P^^^ though formed from a root x^P^^^ makes x^P^'^og in 
the genitive, not x^P^^^g. 

2. The greater part of the actual deviations from regular 
' declension consist in the interchange of forms. In the 

more ancient language, it often happened that a word had 
I two or more terminations and modes of inflection, with onlv 
one and the same signification. Only one of these forms 
was, for the most part, retained as the language became im- 
proved. The other was merely employed, now and then, 
when a more sonorous term was needed, especially in po- 
I etry. Thus, A7]iirjTi]p, more seldom, /^ruirirpa^ " Ceres ;'' 
ddfcpvov, older form ddtcpv, -vog, " a tear.'' 

3. Sometimes the two forms remained more or less in 
common use by the side of each other ; as, viog, " a son," 
genitive vlov ; and also vleog, from a nominative of the third 
declension in evg. 

4. Sometimes both forms originate from the same nom- 
inative, in which case the word is called a Heteroclite. 

I Thus, OldiiTovg, genitive Oldir^odog, and Oldinov. 

5. When, however, one of the forms can be traced to an 



44 ANOMALOUS FORMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

obsolete or unusual nominative, it is called Metaplasm ; as, 
devdpov, gen. -ov ; dative plural SevdpoLg, and. also devdpea^ 
IV, from a nominative to devdpog. 

6. Most of the common and poetical anomalies that oc- 
cur in declension consist of heteroclites and metaplasms. 

7. To the heteroclites belong certain words that are in- 
flected after both the first and third declensions. Some of 
these carry this double mode of inflexion throughout ; as, 
P'Vfcrjg, " a mushroom, '^^ genitive jj^vtcov and [ivKTjrog, Sdc, 
This is particularly the case Mrith proper names in rjg ; as, 
Adprjg, genitive Adpov and AdprjTog, Others have it only 
in part ; as, I^cjfcpdrTjg, accusative I^oyfcpdrr] and ^coKpdrrjv, 

8. Nouns in ojg sometimes make the 'genitive in o) and 
o)og. Thus, Mivcjjg, gen. Mlvo) and Mtvoog ; rcdrpcdg, " a 
paternal uncle,^'' gen. rrdrpd) and Trdrpcjog. 

9. Nouns in cjg, genitive cjrog, sometimes drop the r ; 
as, l6pG)g^ " sweat,^'' which has not only l6pG)ri and Idpojra 
in the dative and accusative, but also toj idpu) and rov idpo), 
the latter being Attic forms. 

10. Nouns in cjg and cov have sometimes the anomaly 
still more apparent', since it shows itself even in the nom- 
inative. Thus, 6 racjg, gen. rao), '' the peacock,''^ and 6 ra- 
G)v, genitive racjvog. So, also, fj dXcjg, gen. dXo), " the 
threshing-floor,^^ and dXcog, gen. d?iG)og. 

11. The declension o^ vavg, a ship, is as follows : 



Attic. 
Sing. N. vavCy 

G. V€G)Ct 
D. VTJL, 

A. vavv, 
V. vavg. 

Dual. N. v?j€y 
G. veolv, 
D veoZvj 
A vrje^ 



PL 



N. v^ef, 
G. veuv, 
D. vavGL 
A. vaiif, 
V. v^ej". 



tJ I'ai)^, " the shipP 

Epic and Jowic. 

Sing. N. vatJf, 

G. i^T^df and veog, 
D. vt;]^', 

A. vTJa and vea, 
V. vai}f . 

Dual. N. v^f, 
G. veoiv, 
D. veolv, 
A. v^f, 



P/. 



N. v^ef and veef, 
G. vecjv, 

D. vrjvai and veeacri, 
A. V7;a$' and veaf, 



Doric. 

Sing. N. vaf , 
G. vadf, 
D. vaty 

A. vavi' and vav> 
V. vac. 

Dual. N. vae, 
G. vaolv, 
D. vaolv, 
A. vae, 



P/. 



N. vaeg^ 
G. vacjv, 
D. vavaiy 
A. vdar, 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 45 

12. The noun ftovg, '^ an ox,^' makes fSoog in the geni- 
tive, l3ovv in the accusative, and in the plural, nom. Posg^ 
contracted jBovg, dative jSovoL, accusative fSoag, contr. jSovg, 

13. The declension ofZsvg is also peculiar. Thus, 

N. Zevg, 

G. Zrjvog and Atog, 
D. Zrjvc and A a', 
A. Zyva and Aia, 
V. Zed. 

14. Under the head of anomalies in declension may be 
ranked the very peculiar paragogic ending in (f)cv or (pt. 
This is of very common occurrence in epic poetry, and is 
used instead of the ordinary dative or genitive singular. 
The rules that control it are as follows : 1. In the first de- 
clension, nouns in tj throw away the a of the genitive ; as 
from evvrjg is formed evvricpLv. The dative, however, ap- 
pends (j)Lv or 0t at once ; as, evvxf, evvrjcfuv, 2. If the noun 
end in og or ov, the o alone remains before (j)Lv or (pt, while 
in those in og, which make the genitive in eog, contr. ovg^ 
the form eg (or evg), the Ionic contraction from eog enters. 
Thus we have from arparov the form orparocpiv ; from 
kpebog, gen. epe6eog, contr. -ovg, the form epe6evG(f)Lv ; from 
OTTjOog, gen. orrjOeog, contr. arrjOovg, the form orrj^eacpLV, 

DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

1. Defective nouns are such as cannot, from their very 
nature, occur in more than one number. Thus, ol erif- 
Gcat, " the etesian winds ;" rd Liovvoia^ '' the festival of 
Bacchus.''^ 

2. Some again are only employed in the nominative and 
accusative ; as, the neuters, bvap, " a dream ,*" virap^ " a 
vision ,*" dejxag, " a hodyP 

3. Others are only used in the nominative ; as, o^eXog^ 
" advantage ;" ^dog^ " benefit,''^ Or in the vocative ; as, o) 
rdv, " O thou:' 

4. Many from having been nouns have become adverbs 
in consequence of their being employed in only one partic- 
ular case ; as, encicXrjVy " by name:^ 



46 DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

INDECLINABLE NOUNS. 

1. Under this are ranked most of the cardinal numbers ; 
as, nevre, ''jive ;" ef, ''six ;" eTrra, " seven,^^ &c. 

2. The names of the letters ; as, aXcpa, jSrjTa^ &c. 

3. The neuter participle to %p£c5i', from the impersonal 

XPl- 

4. The noun '&eiiig, when it occurs in the formula i?epf 

earL 

DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

1. The iEolians said noXvnov for ttoXvttovv, the accusa- 
tive of 7T0?iV7T0vg. They also employed yeXov for yeXcora, 
the accusative of yeXcjg, and rjpoyv for rjpcjg. 

2. The iEolians said lancpcog, ArjTcJg, m the nominative, 
instead of laTTcpG), At/tw. 

3. The iEolians frequently employ the termination evg 
instead of rjg ; as, "Apevg for "Aprjg, and form the oblique 
cases as follows : gen. "Ape?;o^ ; dat. "Apevt ; ace. "Apeva, 
The nominative in evg sometimes occurs also in Doric ; as, 
Evfirjdevg, Theocrit. 5. 134. 

4. The -L-Eolians and Dorians use in the genitive singular 
the termination evg instead of eog ; as, '^dfj.devg for -^diideog. 
So, also, evg for ecjg ; as, 'A^t^^evg for 'AxtXXeo)g. 

5. The iEolians say IcjKpdrov in the genitive instead of 
liWKpdrovg ; and in the vocative IiCJKpare. Hence Pericle 
in Cicero, Off. 1. 40. 8. 

6. The Dorians said, in the genitive plural, alydv for aU 
yCjv ; '&7]pdv for '&7]pu)v ; and, in the nominative, Uoaeiddv 
for UoGeidiov. 

7. The Dorians said TTOtfidv for rroLfMfV, and so through- 
out. So, also, (ppaGL for (jypeai, the dative plural of (j)p'f]v, 

8. The Dorians used fcprjg for Kpeag ; and (pprjTC for (/)p£- 
aTL, the dative of (ppeap. 

9. In such forms as povg, gen. poog, the Dorians change 
ov in all the cases into o) ; as, nominative ftojg, Theocrit. 
8. 77. ; ace. pi. rag pCjg ; dative pi. Pcjolv, &lc. 

10. The Dorians often employ the termination 7]g in the 
nominative for evg. Thus they say, "Opcjyrjg for 'Opcpevg ; 
^iXrjg for (^tXevg, <fec. 

1 1 . The Doric vocative of nouns in evg is formed in rj ; 
as, Tvdrj, 






PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 47 

12. In the Ionic dialect, the genitive plural ends in eG)v ; 
as, dvSpicov, x^^P^^^') fJ^'^veojv. 

13. Nouns in eg, gen. tdog, lose in Ionic the 6, and those 
in ag, gen. arog, the r. Thus, 'Oaipiog for 'Ooipidog ; 
6£T^ for GericJi ; yrjpaog for yrjparog ; fcepaog for fceparog. 

14. The lonians do not contract the cases of contracti- 
ble nouns ; as, evtSpveg, not evtdpvg. So, also, they say 
d(f)pvag, eneog, 'KpaicMTjg, (fee. 

15. The lonians decline nouns in 6t;^ with ?; not con- 
tractible ; as, (3aoiXriog, rofC7]0)v, &c. 

16. Nouns in eg are declined by the lonians with t con- 
tractible ; as, noXtg, gen. rroXtog ; ocfyLg, gen. ocptog. 

17. The lonians are fond of the termination eoc in the 
dative plural ; as, x^ipeoi, icvveac, dvdfcreac, &;c. 

XXI. PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 

1. Patronymics are nouns which designate a son or a 
daughter. They are derived from the proper name of the 
father, sometimes also from that of the mother. 

2. The Masculine Patronymics are of two classes. 
The first class end in either iSrjg, dSrjg, or iddrjg, and form 
the genitive in ov. The second end in todv, and make the 
genitive in G)vog, rarely ovog. 

3. Patronymics in idrig and icxiv are formed from nouns 
in og of the second declension. Thus, from Kpovog, " Sat- 
urn^'' come the patronymics KpoviSTjg and KpovLCJv, both 
meaning " the son of Saturn,''^ i. e., Jupiter. So from K6- 
6pog we have Kodptdrjg ; from TdvraXog, TavraXcdTjg ; 
from Alafcog, Aiafctdrjg. 

4. Patronymics in taStjg are formed from nouns in tog ; 
as, from ''RXtog comes 'RXiddrjg ; from 'AafcXrjmog, 'Aa- 
KXrjTnddTjg ; from Aaeprtog, AaeprtdSrjg, 

5. Patronymics in dSrjg come from nouns in rjg and ag of 
the first declension. Thus, from 'InjTorrjg comes 'InnoTd- ' 
drjg ; from 'AXevag, 'AXevddrjg. 

6. In nouns of the third declension the genitive serves 
as the basis of derivation. If the penult of the genitive be 
short, the patronymic from og is formed in idrig ; as, from 



48 ADJECTIVES. 

'Ayaiiefivcdv, gen. -ovog^ comes 'Ayafjiefivovidi^g ; from Qea- 
ro)p, gen. -opog, QeaTopldrjg ; from Atjtg), gen. -oog, AtjtoU 
drjg, &c. But if the penult of the genitive be long, the 
patronymic ends in cddrjg ; as, from TeXaficdv, gen. -cjvog, 
comes TeXaiidiViddrig ; from 'A[ji(l)iTpvG)v, gen. -(ovog, 'Afi- 
<ptrpvo)VLd6r]g. 

7. Nouns in evg, which in Ionic have the genitive in 7]og, 
give rise to the patrymonic form TjlddTjg. Thus, from 11?/- 
?[.evg, gen. -rjog, comes ILrjXrjlddrjg ; from Ilepaevg, gen, 
'7]og, Ilspa7]'iddr]g. But since these have also the termina- 
tion £G)g in the genitive, v^hich continued to be the prevail- 
ing one in the Attic and common dialects, hence arose, from 
IlepG€vg, gen. Uepoeoyg, the patronymic form ILepaetdrjg ; 
from 'Arpevg, gen. 'Arpecdg, the form 'Arpeidrig, 

8. The Female Patronymics have four terminations, 
namely, either tdg^ ig, ivrj, or cg)V7j. Thus, from Bptaevg 
comes BpLGTjtg^; from 'ArXag, 'ArXavrig ; from "Adprjarog, 
*A6p7]aTCV7j ; from 'AfcpiGcog, 'Atcpiauovr]. It is to be re- 
marked, that the termination ivrj arises when the primitive 
has a consonant before its own termination, and the termi- 
nation LG)vrj when the primitive has before its ending the 
vowel L or v, 

XXII. ADJECTIVES. 

1. The declensions of adjectives are three, 

2. The first declension of adjectives has three termina- 
tions ; the second, two ; the third, one, 

3. Adjectives of three terminations are the most numer- 
ous, and have the feminine always in ?/, except when pre- 
ceded by a vowel or the letter p, in which cases it ends in 

. a. Thus : 

dsiXog, SeiXri, 6eMv, " cowardly ;" 
KaXog, KaXr]^ KaXov, " handsome ,'" 
ao(t)6g, ao(prj, uo(p6v^ ^'wise,^ 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



49 



But, 



ipiXtog, (j>iXta, 


^iXiov, 


'' friendly;'' 


dytog, dyta, 


aycov, 


"holyr 


iepog, lepd, 


lepov, 


" sacred J' 



4. The masculine termination in og and the neuter in ov 
are inflected after the second declension of nouns. The 
feminine termination in ?/ or a is inflected after the first de- 
clension of nouns. 

5. Adjectives in oog, however, have the feminine in rj ; 
as, bySoog, oydorj ; 'doog, i^orj. But, when p precedes, 
these have also a ; as, d'&poog, d-&p6a, 

I. ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



1. Termination in og, 
ao(l)6g, " wise" 

Dual. 

N. ao(j)-6, -a, -6, 
G. ao(p-olVf 'alv, -olv, 
D. Go<l>-olv, -alv, -otVy 
A. Go^-6, -a, -o, 
V. G0(f>-6j -a, -w. 

iepog, " sacred'' 

Dual. 

N. tep-c5, -a, -w, 
G. lep-olv, -alVj -olv^ 
D. lep-olv, -alvj -olv, 
A. lep-G), -a, -c5, 
V. l€p-6y 'd, -6, 



Singular. 
N. G0(p-6g, -^, -ov, 
G. GO(p-ov, -7jg, -ov, 

D. GO^-Uy -y, -L), 

A. G0(^6v -7]v, -6v, 
V. Go^-e, -7], -6v, 



Singular. 
N. £ep-df, -a, -ov, 
G. lep-ov, -df, -Of, 
D. lep-Uy -a, -G), 
A. lep-ov, -dv, -6v, 
V, /ep-e, -a, -ov. 



Plural. 
N. GO(p-oi, -at, -a, 
G. GOiihibv, -wv, -wv, 
D. GO(()-otg, -ale, -olCi 
A. Go<^-ovg, -dg, -a, 
V. GO(j)-oc, -at, 'd. 



Plural. 

N. lep-oi, -at, -a, 

G. lep-cov, -idv, -(oVp 

D. lep-olg, -ale, -olg, 

A. lep-ovg, -dg, -d, 

V. lep'-oi, -at, -d. 



2. Termination in eog. 
Adjectives in eo^ are contracted throughout. In the fem- 
inine, ea is contracted into a when a vowel or the letter p 
precedes the termination og ; but otherwise it is contracted 
into 7]. In the neuter plural, however, ea is always con- 
tracted into a, whatever letter may precede og. Thus : 



50 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



Xpvoeog, contr. ;!^pv(7oi;f, ^^ golden'^ 





Singular. 






Du 


Ml. 




N. 


Xpvo-eoQ, 


-ea, 


'iOVy 


N. XP^<^ 


■EUy 


-ea, 


'EQy 




OVCy 


V, 


OVVy 




(by 


a, 


€>y 


G. 


XpvG'iov, 


'iacy 


-EOVy 


G. xpy(^ 


-EOtVy 


'iaiVy 


'EOtVy 




ov, 


vu 


OVy 




OlVy 


alvy 


OlVy 


D. 


Xpva-E(J, 


-ECCy 


-E(Jy 


D. Xpv(^ 


-EOLVy 


-iatVy 


-EOLVy 




9y 


% 


V, 




OlVy 


alVy 


olv, 


A. 


Xpva-eovy 


-Eavy 


'EOVy 


A. xpy(^ 


-EQy 


'Eay 


'EO)y 




OVVy 


TJVy 


OVVy 




Uy 


ay 


u. 


V. 


Xpya-EEy 


-ea, 


'EOVy 


V. xp^a 


•EG>y 


'iay 


-eo, 






V, 


OVV. 




Uy 


ay 


w. 








Plural 












N. 


XpVG-EOty 

Oly 


-iaty 
aly 


-ea, 
a, 










G. 


Xpva-EO)Vy 

dVy 


'ECdVy 
iOVy 


-ECdVj 

(bv, 










D, 


XpVG'EOCCy 
Oif, 


-Eaccy 
alCy 


-iocc, 
ok, 










A. 


Xpva-Eovcy 

OVCy 


-iacy 
agy 


-Eay 
a, 










V. 


Xpvcf'eoty 

Oly 


'Eaty 
aly 


'Etty 

d. 







3. Termination in oog, 

1. Adjectives in oog are contracted throughout like those 
in eog. In the feminine or) is contracted into rj, and in the 
neuter plural 6a into a. 

2. "When the letter p precedes the termination, the fem- 
inine is in 6a contracted a. But the adjective aSpoog, 
" crowded,''^ is not contracted in the feminine ddpoa, to dis- 1 
tinguish it from the adjective ddpovg, " noiseless,''^ which is , 
of two terminations. 

airXoog, contr. anXovg, " simpler 



N. 


Singular. 

aTiT^-oo^y 'Oriy 


'OOVy 


N. 


dnX'SiOy 


Baal. 
-da, 


'OCJy 


O. 


OVCy 

dn'k-ooVy 


'OTJCy 


OVVy 
'OOVy 


G. 


p>y 

dr^'k'OoiVy 


a, 
'OatVy 


(b, 

'OOLVy 


D. 


OVy 

dlTA'OiDy 


-OVy 


OVy 
'6c)y 


D. 


OlVy 

d-Kk'OOLVy 


alVy 
'OatVy 


olv, 

'OOLVy 


A. 


dn?^-6oVy 


'OTJVy 


'OOVy 


A. 


OlVy 

dirTi'Suy 


alVy 
-da, 


OlVy 

'6u, 


V. 


OVVy 

d'Kk'OEy 


TJVy 

'OVy 


OVVy 
'OOVy 


V. 


dnTi'Suy 


a, 
-da, 


(by 

-dw, 




OVy 


V, 


OVV. 




(by 


c, 


ib^ 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



51 



Plural. 



N. 


CTT/l-OO/., 


'SaCy 


^oa. 




. 0?, 


al, 


a, 


G. 


aTT/l-OQV, 


'OCOV, 


-OidV, 




tJV, 


(bVy 


CJVy 


D. 


CTT/l-doif, 


'oacq, 


'OOLg, 


A. 


uTrl-Sov^j 


alg, 
'oag, 


ok, 
-6a, 


V. 


ovg, 
aTrX-ooLf 


'Oaty 


d, 

-da, 




OL, 


at, 


a. 



4. Termination in ag. 

1. Adjectives in ag have atva in the feminine, and av 
in the neuter ; but participles in ag have the feminine in 
aaa. 

2. The adjective Trdg, " aZZ," " euery," is declined like a 
participle. 

fieXag, " black.^^ 



Singular. 

N. fi€X-aCt 
G. [ikX-avog, 
D. fieX-avty 
A. ^iX-ava, 
V. fteX-ag, 



-atvay 

-atvTjC, 

-alvy, 

-atvav, 

'acva, 



'av, 

-avog, 

-avtj 

-av, 

-av. 



Dual. 

N. fi€?i-ave, -aiva. 
G. fieTi-dvoLv, 
D. fieX-dvoLv, 
A. fisX-ave, 
V. fj,el-av8, 



aivacvy 
aivaiv, 
alva, 
■alva. 



-avEy 
-dvoLVy 

'dvOLV, 

-avEy 
-ave. 



Plural. 
N. fiSTi-avEC, -aivaiy -ava, 
G. iLL£?i-dvo)Vy -acvcJVy -dvuv, 
D. fiEl-aaiy -alvaiCy -aaiy 
A. fieTi-avagy -aivagy -avay 
V. fL£?i-av£C, -aivaiy -ava. 



Singular. 
N. Tinp-aCy -aoay 
G. TVTp-avTOCy -darj^y 
D. Tv-ip-avTCy "doyy 
A. rv-ip-avraj 
V. TV-ip-a^y 



TVipag, " having strucL^^ 

Dual, 
-avy N. Tv-^-avTEy -acre, -avTEy 

-avTO^y , G. Tv^-dvTOtVy -doaiVy -dyroiVy 
-avTCy D. TV^-dvTotVy -doaiVy -dvTOiVf 

•aVy A. Tvip-avTEy -doa, -avvEy 

-av. V. Tvip-avTEy -datty -avre^ 

Plural. 

N. rmp-avTECy -aaaiy -avTa, 

G. Tvip-dvTuVy -aacJVy -dvTuv, 

D. TV-ip-aaCy -daat^y -aoiy 

A. Tv-ip-avra^y -daa^y -avray 

V. Tvip-ayTc^y -aoat, -avra^ 



-aaav 
-aaay 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



Singular. 
N. Traf, Traaa, 

G. TTavTOCy TzaGTjg, 
D. TravTtf rcdcrf, 
A. TTCLvray izdaav, 
V. ndgj TTdoa, 



TTag, " all,'' " ever^:' 

Dual. 

TZdV, N. TTCLVTE^ TTacfl, TzavTe, 

TTavTog, G. iravTOiVy Trdaacv, ttclvtolv, 

TravTt, D. iravTOcv, TraGacVj izavroLVy 

ndvy A. Traire, ^aca, Travre, 

TTav. I V. Trdvrej Trdaa^ Tzdvre, 



Plural. 



N. TrdvreCj Trdcrat, Tzavra, 

G. 7ravr6>v, Traacbv, izdvTCJv, 

A. Tzdvrag, Tcdoag, TvdvTa, 

V. TTovref , Trdaac, Tzdvra. 



5. Termination in etg. 

Adjectives in e^^ make the feminine in eaaa and the 
neuter in sv. Participles in ecg make the feminine in siaa. 



X^p^SLg, " comely.'^ 



Singular, 
G. ;^api-e^'rof, -eGorj^. 

A. ;\;a/9i-ei'ra, 
V. xo-pi'-^h 
or 



I', 5 



-evTOCt 

-evTiy 

~eVf 



EGOa, -£V, 



Dual. 

G. ;^;a/9i-evroiv, -ecjaacVy -evTotVy 
D. x^P^-^'^'^oLv, 'EcaaLVy -evtoiVj. 
A. ;\;ap6-£vre, -eGcaj -evrSy 



V. ;tap^-£rrf, -eaaa, -£vrf» 



Plural. 



N. ;^apt-£vr£:f, -eaaaiy 'Evra^ 

G. ;:^^api-evrwv, -eaauv, -evrov, 

A. ;\;a/9/-evTaf, -Eooag, -Evray 

V. ;^apt-evr£f, -Ecaai, -Evra. 



rv(l)6etg, " struck.'^ 



Singular. 



N. TV(l)d-ELCf -EiGa, -ev, 

G. TV<pd-EVTOCi -ELGTjg, -EVTOC, 

D. rV(l)8-EVTLj 'ELGTlj -EVTtj 

A. Tvipd-Evra, -EtGaVy -ev, 

V. TV<l>d-£lCj 'ElGa, -EV, 



Dual. 



N. TV(f)d-ivT£y -ELGay -hvEy 

G. TVCpd-EVrOLV, 'ELGaLV, 'EVTOtVy. 

D. TV(pd-EVTOLVf -ELGaCVj -EVTOtVy 

A. TV^O-EVTE, -ELGOj -EVTE, 

V. TV^d-EVTE. -ELGa. -EVT€. 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



53 



Plural. 
N. Tvcpd-evreg^ -elcrai, -evra, 

G. TV(pd-eVT(jJVy -ELGCJV, -EVTOVy 

D. TV(ji6-eloL^ -ELGaLc;, -elai, 
A. Tvipd-evra^, -eiaag^ -ivra^ 
V. Tvipd-evregy -elaat, -evra. 

The termination 'qsig, belonging to this head, is often 
contracted. Thus, -i]ei(;, -rjeaaa, -Tjev, are contracted into 
"V^i 'TiGoa, 7]v ; as, for example, 

N. TLfj^'xig, Ttii-Tjcraa, rtfX'rjv, 

G. rtii'TjvTog, TLTj-riaorjg, rtfi-riVTog, &lc. 

6. Termination in tjv. 

Adjectives in 7]v have the feminine in etva and the neu- 
ter in ev. Of these, however, we find only one form exist- 
ing in Greek, namely, repTjv, repecva, repev, 

ripTjv, " tender. ^^ 





Singular, 




N. 


rip-vv, 


'Etva, 


'EV, 


G. 


rep-evoCy 


'Eivrjg, 


-EVOC, 


D. 


rep-EVLf 


-ELVTJ, 


-EVt, 


A. 


TEp-Eva, 


'ELVaVy 


'EV, 


V. 


TEp-£V, 


"Etva, 


-EV. 



Dual. 

N. TEp-EVE, -ElVa, 'EVE, 

G. TEp-EVOLV, 'ELVaiV, -EVOLVf 

D. TEp-EVOLV, -EtVaCV, 'EVOiV, 

A. TEp-EVE, -ELVa, -EVE, 

V. TEp-EVE, EtVaf -EVE. 



Plural. 

N. TEp-EVECj -Etvat, -Eva, 

G. TEp-EVO)V, -ELVdv, -EViOV, 

B. TEP'EGL, 'Eivatg, -EGt, 

A. TEp-Evag, -ELvag, -Eva, 

V. TEp-EVEg, -ELVai, 'EVa. 



7. Termination in oeig, contracted ovg, 

j Adjectives in oetg are contracted throughout, and form 

the feminine in oeaaa, contr. ovoaa, and the neuter in oev, 

contr. ovv, 

E2 

\ 
i 



54 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



fieXcToecg, contracted fieXcrovg, " made of honey J^ 



Singular. 

N. fi8?iiT-6etCi -oeaaay -oev, 

ovcy ovoaa^ ovvj 

G. fieTiiT'OevTog^ -oEaaric, -SevTog^ 

ovvToCi ovaoTjg^ ovvtog^ 

D. jLLeXcT'SevTc, Seacrr), -oevrc, 

OVVTCf OVaCTTfj OVVTLj 

A. jusTiLT-OEVTay -SeaaaVf -SeVy 

ovvrGy ovaaavy ovVj 

V. fie?ur-6ev, -oeGGa, -oev, 

ovv. ovGoa, ovv. 



Dual. 

N. fieXiT'Oevre, 'Oeaoa, -obvts, 

OVVTEy OVOGa, OVVTEf 

G. ixE%tT-6evroLVi -oEGGaiVj -oevtolv, 
ovvTotv, ovGGatVy ovvrotVf 

D. flETilT'OEVTOCVj -OEGGaiVf -OEVTOlVf 
OVVTOtVj OVGGatVj ovvrocVf 

A. jLLEXtT-OEVTEy -OEGGa^ -OEVTEy 
OVVTEj OVGGa^ OVVTEj 

V. flE^LT-OEVTEf -OEGGa^ -OEVTE^ 

ovvfE^ ovGGa^ ovvre. 



Plural 



N. fjLE?iLT- 
G. flsTiLT- 
D. flE?iLT- 
A. fZE2,tT' 
V. flEXiT- 



'OEVTEgy 
OVVTEg^ 

•oEvraVy 

OVVTCJVy 
■OEGL, 

OVGLy 

■oEvrac, 
ovvrag, 

OEVTEg^ 
OVVTEg^ 



-oEGaatj 

OVGGaty 
-OEGGCdVf 
OVGGCJVy 

-oEGGaig, 
ovGGatCy 
'OEGGagj 
ovGGaCf 

'OEGGaty 

ovGGau 



-oEvra, 
ovvrtty 

'OEVTOV, 
OVVTG)Vf 

'OEGlf 
OVGi, 

'OEVTay 
OVVTttf 

'OEVTay 

ovvra. 



8. Termination in ovg uncontr acted. 
This form belongs to participles, and makes the feminine 
in ovaa and the neuter in ov. 



Sovg, " having given. 



N. Sovg^ 
G. SovT'Ogy 
D. SSvT'i, 
A. dovT-ay 
V. Sovg^ 



Singular. 

dovG-ay 

dovG'Tjgy 

doVG'Tly 

SovG-avy 
dovG-ay 



Dual. 



SoVy 

66vT-ogy 

66VT-Iy 
66Vy 

OOP. 



N. dSvT-Ey dovG-ay dovT-e, 

G. dSvT-otVy SovG-aiVy Sovt-otVy 

D. 66vT-OLVy SovG-acVy dovr-oiVf 

A. 66vr-Ey 6ovG-ay dovr-e, 

V. 66vT-Ef dovG-dy dovT'S. 



Plural. 

N. 66vT'Egy 6ovG-aiy dovt-ay 

G. 66vT'(j^Vy SovG-cjVy dovT'CdVy 

I). dovG-iy dovG-aigy dovG-iy 

A. SovT-agy dovG-agy dovr-ay 

V. 66vT-£g, 6ovG-aiy dovT-a, 

9. Termination in vg. 
1. Adjectives in vq make the feminine in ela and the 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



55 



neuter in v. They also contract u into tl^ and ieq and iaq 
into fZ^f . 

2. Participles in vq make the feminine in vaa and the 
neuter in vv. 







Tjdvg, " 


sweet. 


11 








Singular. 






Dual 




G. 7]6-eogy 




'El, 
Ely 




N. Vd-EEy 

G. Tj6-E0lVy 

B. Tjd-SOlVy 


-Eiay 

'EiaiVy 
'EiaiVy 


-ESy 

'EOIV^ 
-EOlV 


A. yd-vVf 


'EiaVf 
"Eta^ 


'V. 


Vlu 


A. 
V. 


rjd-EEy 

ij6-EEy 


'Eiay 
-eta, 


-EEy 

'is. 






G. 

G. Tjd- 
B. ^(5- 
A. 27(5- 


EECy 

EL^y 
EUVy 
EOly 

■iacy 


-ElCJVy 

■EiaiCy 


-say 

'EUVi 

'EGly 

-ea, 










V. ^^- 


ElCy 

EEU 


-Eiaiy 


-ea. 







^evyvvg^ *' joining *^^ 



Singular. 
N. C^yv-vcy 'VGay 'VVy 
G. ^E^iyv-vvTogy 'Varjgy -vvTogy 
B. Cevyv-vvTi, -v(yy, -vvriy 
A. ^Evyv-vvtay -iJCaVy -vvy 
V. ^Evyv'ijCi 'veay "VV. 



^ Dual. 
N. ^EvyV'VVTEy 'vaay 'vvrsy 
G. ^Evyv-vvToiVy "VGaiVy -vvtolv, 
B. ^svyV'Vvroiv, -vaaiVy -vvroiv^ 
A. ^Evyv-vvTEy 'Vaay -vvTEy 
V. ^EvyV'VVTEy »vaay -vvte. 



Plural 

N. C^vyv-vvTECy 'vaaiy -vvray 

G. ^evyv-wl-cji^, -vacbVy -vvTuVy 

B. Isvyv-vaiy -vcaigy -vaiy 

A. ^Evyv-vvtagy ~v(jagy -vvray 

V. ^Evyv^vvTEgy ^vaaiy ^vvra. 

10. Termination in 0)v, 
The termination in cov makes ovaa in the feminine and 
ovin the neuter. There are but two adjectives of this ter- 
mination, namely, eKciv, with its compound ds/ccjVy con- 
tracted by the Attics into ukqv. All the other forms in g)v 
are participles, 



56 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONSr 



efccjVy " willing.''^ 



Singular, 








Dual 




N. ^K'UVy 


-ovoay 


'6v, 




N. 


kK-6vTEy 


-ovaoy 


-^VTSf 


G. iK-6vTog, 


'ovaric, 


-ovTog 




G. 


^K-6vT0LVy 


'OvaaiVy 


-OVTOLVf 


D. eK'OVTiy 


-ovarii 


-OVTLj 




D. 


IK'OVTOLV, 


'OvcaiVy 


'OVTOLVf 


A. tK-ovra, 


-ovoav, 


-6v, 




A. 


kK-6vTEy 


-ovaay 


'OVTEy 


V. iK-UV, 


'OVGaj 


'6v. 




V. 


kK'OVTEy 


'Ovcay 


'OVTt, 






Plural. 










N.^« 


SVTEC^ 


'Ovaat^ 


'Ovray 








G. e/c 


ovruVy 


-OVGCJV, 


'OVTOVf 








D.^K 


OVGty 


'OVGatg, 


'OVGLy 








A.U 


■ovrar^ 


-ovaa^j 


'OVTOy 








y.ifc- 


■ovrect 


'Ovaaty 


-ovra. 







TVTTTCJV, " Striking.''^ 



Singular. 
N. TVTTT'tiVy -ovaay 

G. TVTTT'OVTOgy -OVGTJd 

D. TVTiT-ovTiy -ovayy 
A. rvTCT-ovTOy -ovGaVy 
V. TvnT-uv^ "Ovaay 



Dual. 



-OVy 

-ovro^y 

-OVTLy 
-OVy 

'OV. 



N. TVTTT'OVTEy -OVCfl, ^OVTEy 

G. TVTTT'SvTOiv, 'Ovaacvy -ovtolv, 

D. TVTTT-OVrOLVy -OVOatVy -SvTOCVf 

A. TVTrr-oVTEy -ovaay -ovvEy 

V. TVTTT'OVTEy 'OVffay -OVTC, 



Plural. 



N. TUTTT-OVTECy 
G. TVKT-OVTOV, 
D. TVTTT-OVaCy 

A. TviTT-ovra^y 

V. TVTTT-OVTE^y 



-ovaaiy -ovray 

-ovacJVy -ovTcjVy 

-ovcaigy -ovGiy 

-ovaaty 'Ovruy 

-ovaaiy 'Ovra, 



Some participles in wv, contracted from clcjUV^ make the 
feminine in Cdoa and the neuter in wi^. Thus : 



TLfjidG)v, contracted rtfjiojv^ " honouring.^^ 





Singular. 






Dual. 




N. 


TLfl'doVy 


-dovaay 


-dovy 


N. 


TL/LL-doVTEy 


'dovaay 


-doVTBy 




(JV, 


uaay 


€)Vy 




(bVTEy 


uaay 


UVTEy . 


G. 


TLfJL'doVTOCi 


'doVGTJCy 


-dovTOCy 


G. 


TLjl-doVTOiVy 


-dovaatVy 


'doVTOtVf 




uvroCy 


^ ^OTJCy 


(OVTO^y 




CJVTOtVy 


(JaatVy 


uvroiVy 


D. 


TL/M'doVTLy 


'dovorjy 


-dovTty 


D. 


Ttfl-doVTOlVy 


'dovaatVy 


-doVTOiVy \ 




UVTiy 


tJarfy 


tJVtiy 




UVTOLVy 


cjaaiVy 


UVTOiVf 


A. 


Ttfi'dovray 


'dovoavy 


-doVy 


A. 


Ttfl'doVTEy 


-dovaay 


'doVTEy i 




tovray 


(Jaavy 


UVy 




CiVTEy 


uaay 


uvre. 


V. 


Tifi-d(i)Vy 


-dovoay 


-doVy 


V. 


TL/l-doVTEy 


-dovaay 


'doVTS, 1 




UVy 


uaay 


iov. 




UVTEy 


uattf 


UVT€, 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



57 



Plural. 

N. TLfi-dovTECf 'dovcaiy -dovra, 

G. TLfL-dovTcjv, -aovacjVy -aovTov, 

(JVTCJVf DCCjV^ d)VTO)V, 

D. TLfi-dovaCj 'dovaatg, -dovat, ' 

Cxji, Cxjatg^ cJGCf 

A. Tifi-dovrac, -dovaag, -dovra, 

covra^f (baag^ uvra, 

V. Ttfi-dovTECy 'dovaai, -dovra, 

(ovTsg, {jaac, uvra. 

11. Termination in G)g. 
I This termination also belongs to participles. The fem- 
inine is in via and the neuter in 6g, 

rsTVcpdjg, " having struck. ^^ 
Singular. Dual, 



N. TeTV(p-6g, -via, -of, 

G. TETvip-OTOgj -vtaCj 'OTOC, 

D. TeTV<l)-6Tt, -via, -on, 

A. TE-nxp-Sra, -vlav, -of, 

V. T£TV(p-cjgj -via, -6g. 



N. t£tv(J)-6te, -via, -ore, 

G. TETvip-OTOlV, -vtatV, -OTOtV, 

D. TETvip-OTOLV, -ViatV, -OTOLV, 

A. TETV(f)-6TE, -via, -QTE, 

V. T£rv(p-6T£f -via, -6t£. 



Plural. 
N. tetv(I)-6t£c, -viae, -bra, 

G. TETVd'OTOV, -VLCOV, -OTUV, 
D. TETVCp-OGL, -viatg, -OGL, 

A. TETvip-orag, -viag, -ora, 
V. T£TV(p-6TEg, -vlai, -ora. 

The syncopated forms of the perfect participle active, 
however, make the feminine in cjaa and the neuter in (og. 
Thus : 



earojg, " having stood.^^ 



Singular. 

N. iGT-6g, -iJaa, -cjf, 

G. EGT-cJTog, -C)Grig^ -cbrog, 

D. EGT-UTL, -OGy, -LJTL, 

A. kGT-C)Ta, -cJGav, -6g, 

V. £GT-ug, -cjGa, -cjf. 



Dual. 

N. EGT-uTE, -liGa, -dre, 

G. EGT-UTOIV, -UGatV, -UTOIV^ 

D. iGT-UTOlV, -COGaLV, -UTOlVf 

A. EGT'CJTE, -UGa, -UTE, 

V. iGT'UTE, -WC7£Z, -WT^, 



58 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



N. eaT-iJT£Cy 
G. ^oT-wrwVj 

A. lGT-€)Ta^f 



Plural. 

'CJcac, -wra, 

-uoagy -(Jray 



2. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS.. 
1. Termination in og. 



Singular. 

N. £vdo^-oCy -Of, -01/, 

G. ev66^-0Vy 'OVy -ov, 

D. hv66^-G), -(^, -cj, 

A. hdo^-ov, -ov, -ov, 

V. Mo^-Ej -£, -ov. 



evdo^og, " glorious,^^ 

Dual. 
N. Ev66^-cd, -co, -w, 

G. kvSo^-OLVf 'OtVf 'OIV, 
D. £v6o^-OLV, 'OLV, 'OLV, 

A. evdof-w, -w, -w, 

V. £V60^-G)j -6), -0). 



Plural. 

N. £v6o^-otf 'Oty -fly 
G. £v66^'0)Vj -uv, 'uv^ 
D. ^v(56^-oif, -oif, -otfy 
A. ei^fJo^-ov^-, -ovf, -a, 
V. £v6o^-oty "OLj -a. 



2. Termination in ag, 

decvag, '' perpetual, ^^ 
Singular. Dual. 



N. uEiv-ag, -Gf, -ai;, 

G. aeiV-avrof, -avTog, -avToc, 

D. a£Lv-avTiy -avrCy -avTij 

A. uEtv-avTa, -avra^ -avy 

V. CLELv-aVy -avy -av. 



N. CLELV-aVTEy -aVTEy -aVTEy 

G. aELv-dvTocVy -dvrocvy 'UVTolv^ 

D. dEiV-dvTOiVy -dvTOLVy -dvTOtVf, 

A. aELv-avTEy -avTEy -avrSy 

V. aELv-avTEy -avTEy -avre. 



Plural. 

N. aEiv-avTEgy -avTECy -avTa, 

G. aEiv-dvTiov, 'UVTcjv, -dwuv, 

D. dELv-aaiy -aoiy -ccri, 

A. cLELv-avTaCy -avragy -avray 

V. aELV-avTEgy -avTE^y -avra. 

3. Termination in rjv. 
apprjVy " male,^^ 





Singular. 




Dual. 




N. 


u/)f)-7JVy 


-TJVy 


-EVy 


N. dpf)-EVey 'EVEy 


-evf, 


G 


df)f>-£VOCy 


'EVOCy 


-EVOCy 


G. a/5/6-^voiv, -ivotv, 


'EVOIV, 


D. 


u/)f)-£VLy 


'EVLy 


'EVLy 


D. df)f>-evotv, 'ivoLVy 


'EVOLVy 


A. 


df)f)'Evay 


'EVtty 


'EVy 


A. d^f)-EVEy 'EVEy 


'EVEy 


V. 


dt)t)-EVy 


•EVy 


'EV. 


V. a/5/5-£V£, -£ve, 


'EVE^ 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



59 



Plural. 

G. a^^-EVG)Vy ~£VO)V, -£VO)Vj 

D. a|6/6-£(7i, -e(TL^ -eaiy 
A. apf)-evaCf -evag^ -eva, 
V. aply-eveg, -eveg, -eva. 

4. Termination in 7jg,'< 
Adjectives in 7]g of two terminations undergo contrac- 
tion, changing eog into ovg ; ei into el ; ea and ee into 
^, &c. 



Singular. 








Dual. 




N. aXTjO'^Cy 


'k, 


-ki 




N, akriB-k, 


-ee, 


-ee, 


G. alfjO-eog, 


'iog, 


'iog, 




G. aTiTjO-eotv, 


'toiv. 


-eoLV, 


ovg, 


ovg, 


ovg, 
-el. 




olv, 
D. alr^e-eoiv. 


olv, 
-eoLV, 


olv, 
-eoiv, 


A. d;i7?<9-ea', 


el, 


el, 




OLV, 

A. akrid-ee, 


OiV, 

-ee, 


olv J 
-is, 


V. ulrjd-ig. 




'k^ 




V. d;i77(9-£e, 


-ee, 


V, 












Vy 


Vy 


V- 








Plu 


ra^. 












N. alrid- 


■eeg. 


-eeg, 


-ea. 










G. alfje 


eig. 

-eo}V 


elg, 
f -eo)V 

(OV, 


V, 
, -ecov, 

CJV, 










D. alrid- 


eat, 


-eG-t, 


-eat. 










A. dA7?<9- 


eag, 


-eag, 


•ea. 










V. d;i??<9 


elg, 
eeg, 
elg. 


elg, 
-eeg, 
elg, 


-ea. 







N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 



5. Termination in ig. 

evX^pcg, " acceptable, ^^ 

Singular, 

evxap-ig, -tg, 
evxo-p-trog, -irog 



evxap-LTL, 
evxap-iTa, 



V. tvxdp'h 



)-LTL, -ITL, 

>LTa, \ -era, j 

or > or > 

-LV, ) -IV, ) 



-LTOg, 
-LTL, 



Dual, 

N. evxap-tre, -ire, -ere, 

G. evxap'LTOtv, -troiv, -iTotVf 

D. evxap-LTOLv, -irocv, -Itolv^ 



A. evxdp-LTE, 
V. evx^'iTE, 



-ire, -LTE, 



HTE, 



•LTe, 



60 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



Plural. 



N. eixap'treci 
G. evxap-iTovy 
D. evxdp'tai, 
A. evxoLp'LTagy 
V. evxap-iTEC, 



'irecy 'tra, 

-LTCdVy 'ITCJVy 

-taty -tffly 

'LTagy 'tray 

'trecy -ira. 



6. Termination in ovg. 

Adjectives in ov^ of two terminations have the accu- 
sative singular in -oda or -ovv, and the vocative in -ovg 
or 'Ov, 

6inovg, " two-footed" 





Singular. 


Dual. 




N 


StTT-ovgy 


-OVf, 'OVVy 


N. ^tTT-O^f, 


-ode. 


-OSSy 


G 


ScTT-odog, 


-odogy 'odogy 


G. diTT-odoiVy 


-odoiVy 


'OdoLVy 


D. 
A. 


6 ITT- 06 1, 

diTT-oda, ) 


-oSty 'odcy 
'oSay \ 


D. (5i7r-6(5oiv, 


-odotVy 


-odoLVy 




or [ 


or > 'OVVy 


A. ScTr-oSey 


-oSe, 


-OSSy 




-OVVy ) 


-OVVy S 








V. 


diiT'Ovg^ ) 


-ovgy \ 










or [ 


or > -ovv. 


V. dtiT-o6e, 


-odsy 


-ode. 




-ov, ) 


'OVy J 

Flu 
N. SiiT'oSegy 
G. dtn-odcjVy 

D. dlTZ-OGty 

A. diir-o^agy 
V. diTZ'odegy 


ral. 

'odeg, -oStty 
'66o)Vy 'odcov, 
'oaty -oat, 
-oSagy -06a, 
'Odegy -oda. 







7. Termination in vg. 
Adjectives in vg of two terminations contract veg and vag 



into vg. 



ddaicpvg, " tearless." 



Singular, 
N. uSaKp-vg, -vg, -v, 
G. aSuKp-vog, -vof, -vog, 
D. aduKp-vi, -vlj -vij 
A. adaKp-vv, -w, -v, 

V. u6aKp-Vy -Vy -V. 



Dual. 

N. aSaKp-vcy -ve, -ve, 

G. aSaKp-votVy -volv, -voiv, 

D. adaKp-vocVy -voiv, -volv, 

A. 6,6dKp'V€, 'VCy -vs, 

V. aduKp-ve, -vsy 'Ve, 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



61 



Plural. 

N. aSaKp'VeCj -vec, -va, 

G. a6aKp-v(j)Vj -vuv, -vov, 

D. adaKp-vai, -vat, -vai, 

A. aSuKp-vac, 'VdC, -vdj 

vg, vg, 

V, adaKp'VEC, -veg, -va. 

vf, vg. 



8. Termination in cov. 



<7o30pa)v, " discreet, ^^ 





Singular. 






Dual. 




N. 


GCO(j)p'G)V, 


-0)V, 


-OV, 


N. 


a6(^p-ove. 


-ove. 


-OVE, 


G. 


G6(pp-0V0Cj 


-ovoc, 


'Ovog, 


G. 


acj(j)p-6votv, 


-ovotv, 


-ovotv, 


D. 


GG)(l)p-OVLy 


'OVi, 


-OVl^ 


D. 


aLd(^p-6votv, 


-OVOtVf 


-OVOtVj 


A. 


GG)(l)p-ova, 


-ova, 


-OV, 


A. 


aufp-ove, 


-OVE, 


-OVE, 


V. 


GC0<l)p-OV, 


'OV, 


-OV. 


V. 


a6(pp-ov€, 


-ove, 


-OVE. 








Plural. 












N. 


Gci^p-oveg, -oveg, -ova. 










G. 


GGXpp-OVCJVf -6VG)V, --OVQV, 










D. 


G6(l>p-0Gi, -oat, 


-oat, 










A. 


acj(l)p-ovac, -ovag, -ova 










V. 


au^p-oveg, 


-oveg, -ova. 







Under this same head fall comparatives in (ov, which 
are declined like OG)(t)po)v, except that they are syncopated 
and contracted in the accusative singular, and in the nom- 
inative, accusative, and vocative plural. Thus : 



fjLEL^cjv, ''greater.''^ 



Singular 






Dual. 




N. flEt^-UV, 


-uv, 


-OV, 


N. fZEt^-ove, -OVE, 


•ove, 


G. fJLEil-OVOg, 


-ovoc, 


-ovoc. 


G. jLCEt^-ovotv, -ovotv, 


-ovotv, 


D. flEt^-OVt, 


-ovt, 


-ovt, 


D. llEt^-OVOtV, -ovotv, 


-ovotv, 


A. fiEC^-ova, 1 


-ova, 


) -OV, 






-oa syncope, > 


-oa, 


> 


A. p,£t^-0VE) -OVE, 


'Ove, 


-u crasis, ) 


-CJ, 


) 






V. fiel^-ovy 


-OV, 


-OV. 


V. (iei^-ovey -ove, 


-ove. 



62 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



Plural 
N. fiBL^-oveg, 

-oef, s3mcope; 
-Off, crasis, 

G. flEL^-OVOVf 

A. fiec^-ovac, 

'Oag^ syncope, 
-ovf, crasis, 

-oef, syncope, 
-ovf, crasis. 



) -OV£f, ^ 

pe, V -oer, V 
1, ) -ovc, ) 



ope, > 
s, ) 



ovec, 

-OVCy 

-OVCOVj 

-ovag, 
-oag, 

-oef, 
'Ovgj 



'Ovay \ 
-oa, > 
-w, 5 

'OVOVy 

•^acy 



tf, \ 'ovay \ 

■y ^ -oa, V 

, ) -w, } 

•I 



-ova, 

'Oay 

-w. 



9. Termination in 6)p. 
ILieyaXriTG)p, " magnanimous^*^ 



Singular. 



N* /leyal^T'iopy 
G. fzeyaTiTJT-opoCy 
D. jLLeya?i7/T'0piy 
A. iieyakrjT-opay 
V. [leyakriT'Opy 



-wp, 

-opof, 

-opi, 

-opay 

-op, 



-op, 
-opof, 

-op, 
-op. 



N. fieyaTiTJT-opey 
G. fieyakriT'OpOLVy 
D. iieyalrjT-SpotVy 
A. fj,eya?iyr-op£y 
I V. neyalrJT'Opey 



Plural 
N. fieyaTiT/T'OpeCy 
G. fieyakrjT-opuVy 
D. fieyakrjT-opGiy 
A. fieyaT^TfT-opagy 
V. /leyaXrJT-opeg, 



-op^Cr 'Opa, 

"OpQVy "Spwv, 

'Opaty -opGiy 

'Opacy 'Opa, 

'Ope^y 'Opa, 



'OpEy -opSy 

'OpOiVy 'OpOLV, 

^OpOLVy -SpOlVy 

'OpEy -OpCy 

'OpEy -ope. 



10. Termination in G)g. 
€vy£6)f, '^fertile.^^ 





Si 


ngular. 




Dua 


?. 




N. 


fvyf-6)f, 


-OCy 


-WV, 




N. £V7£-6), 


-6J, 


-6), 


G. 


ev/e-w, 


-w. 


-0), 




G. EVyE-GiVy 


-9?;, 


^cjx;, 


D. 


EVyE-L), 


-9» 


-^» 




D. £vye-6jv, 


-^v, 


-^v. 


A. 


EVyE-OVy 


-6)V, 


-«v, 




A. EvyE-Uy 


-6), 


-6),. 


V. 


eiye-ugy 


-6>f, 


-wv. 

N. £vyE-(f)y 

G. EVyE-tdVy 

D. evye-wf, 
A. evye-cjf, 
V. £i'ye-<;j, 


-wv, 

-Wf, 


V. eijye'Uy 

-wv, 
-w, 


-a>, 


-(i>. 



ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. 63 

3. ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. 

Adjectives of one termination, namely, which express 
the masculine, feminine, and neuter by one and the same 
ending, are the cardinal numbers from ttevte^ '^ jiv>e^^ to 
eKarov, " a hundred,^^ both inclusive. 

Others have indeed only one termination, but for the 
masculine and feminine merely, since they are not used 
with substantives of the neuter gender, at least in the nom- 
inative and accusative singular and plural. They are 
properly of the common gender, wanting the neuter.^ 
Such are, 

1. Adjectives compounded of substantives which remain 
unchanged ; as, fxanpoxsip, avroxsip, evpcv, ixafcpaicov, fia- 
Kpavxi'^y from %€^p, piv, alojv, and avx^iv^ except those 
compounded of TTOvg and iroXig, which have two termina- 
tions. 

2. Adjectives in wp, which are partly derived from Trarrjp 
and [irjT7]p', s,s,andTG)p, dfjLrjTGyp, 6ijioiirjT0)p ; and partly from 
verbs; as, TzacdoXercjp, 6[Moyev£TG)p, [iidarojp. 

3. Adjectives in rjg, genitive 'rjrog, and in G)g, genitive 
-(jjTog-, as, ddfirjg, rjfiLdvrjg, dyvcjg, (hfio6pojg. 

4. Adjectives in TTrjg and rrjg, according to the first de- 
clension; as, evcjTrrjg, edeXovrrjg. 

5. iVdjectives in ^ and i/j, as, r}?ii^, (j)olvi^^ alyiXiil), aldioip. 

6. Adjectives in ag^ genitive -adog^ and in tg^ genitive 
'idog\ as, (pvydg, dvaXmg, 

ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES. 

1. Originally some adjectives had two forms, of both of 
which certain cases have been retained in use, so that the 

1 . Some of these, however, are also used as neuters, but only in the 
genitive and dative singular and plural ; as, aiKpiTprjrog avliov, Soph. 
Philoct. 19 ; Ev TrevrjTL Gufiart^ Eurip. El. 375 ; aTTTTJa-tv r€K€(n, Euen. 
Epigr. 13. In other words, the neuter, when necessary, is supplied by 
derivative or kindred forms ; as, P?mkck6v, dpnanTLKoVy (luwxovj &c. 



64 



ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES. 



cases which are wanting in one form are supplied by those 
of the other. Of this kind are fisyag or [leydXog, and rro- 
Xvg or TToA/ld^. 

2. From fieyaXog, the feminine fieydXri has remained in 
use throughout, as well as the entire dual and plural, and 
the genitive and dative masculine and neuter of the singu- 
lar number. The remaining cases, the nominative and ac- 
cusative singular, masculine and neuter, are taken from [is-" 
yag. 

3. In TToXvg, the feminine and the dual and plural num- 
bers are entirely taken from iroXXog. 



G. fieyuXoVf 
D. [leyd^M, 
A. fieyav, 
V. fieyag, 



(Jisyag, ^^ great. '^^ 

Singular, Dual. 

fieydTir], fieya, N. fisydTiG), fieydlaf jueydlcj^ 

fieydXyCy fJ,eyd?i0Vj G. fieydXotv^ /ueydXatv^ jueydXaiVf 

(leydlrj^ {xeydXayj D. fieydXoiv, fisydXatv^ jLteydXatVf 

jueydXyVj fxeya^ A. jieydTiG), fxeydTia, [leydTiOy 

fMeydXr], fieya. V. fieydXo), fjieydTia^ fieyaXo. 



N. fieydloty 
G. fieydXcjv, 
D. {jLeydTiotg^ 
A. fieydjiov^, 
V. fieydTioCy 



Plural. 

jueydXaLy 

fieydlcjVy 

[leydTiai^, 

jueydTiac, 

fieydXaiy 



fieydXay 

fieydXoVf 

(xeydTioig, 

fieyakay 

/leyuXa. 



TToXvg, " much/ 



Singular. 

N. TToTiVC, 'KoTikrjy 
G. TzoTiXoVy 

D. TTOX/Icj, 
A. TTOlvVy 
V. TTO/lv, 



TTOXVy 

TroTJkovy 



'Kok'kriq., 
TvoXkrjv, 'Kokvy 



Dual. 

N. TTO/l/lw, TToXXd, 1TO?i7l6, 

G. T^oXkolv^ TToXkalv, 'KoXkolVj 

D. TToXkolVy TToTikalv, 'KoXkolVy 
A. 7ro/l/l(5, TTO/l/ld, TToA/ifj, 

V. TTOAACJ, TTOTiTld, TToXXd). 



Plural. 

N. TZoTCkoi, 'KoXkaiy TTO/l/ld, 

G. ttoTJmv^ TzoTCkCyv., iroTCkcdv^ 

D. TTO/l/lorf, iToTCkalq^ iroTiTMig^ 

A. TzoTyXovq^ iToTCkdg^ TroXku^ 

V. ixoWoiy TToTiXaly 'KoWd. 



1. Many forms from 'Kokvq occur, however, in the poets. Thus, the 
genitive nolEoq, 11. 4, 244 ; the nominative plural iroleeg^ H. 2, 610 ; 
the genitive plural no?ieu)v, II. 5, 691 ; the dative ttoMglv, IL 4, 388, &c. 



REMARKS ON THE TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 65 

The adjective aXXog is anomalous only in this, that it has 
aA/lo in the neuter instead of aX/iov, 

REMARKS ON THE TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 

1. Adjectives in -alogj having the vowel i before alog^ 
denote magnitude or value, and are derived from the names 
of measures, weights, coins, and denominations of money ; 
as, TTTj^vcalog, " a cubit long ,*" TTodLolog, " a foot long ;" 
raXavrtalog^ " costing a talent ,'" &:c. Those in alog^ on 
the other hand, which have not i before dlogy generally de- 
note the place where something has originated, or to which 
it belongs ; as, irrjyalog, ''proceeding from,^' or, " belonging 
tv, a fountain ;" dyeXalog, " belonging to a herd ;" Kopv- 
<f>aLogj " one who is at the head^'* Some, however, denote 
merely a quality ; as, OEk7\valog^ " moon-shaped;''^ elp7]valog, 
" peaceahle,^^ 

2. Adjectives in -dXeog mostly express a fulness ; as, 
•dappdXeog, "full of confidence ;^^ SetfidXeog, "full offear.^^ 

3. Adjectives in -avog mostly signify the possession of 
the quality expressed by the primitive ; as, jrevKeSavog, 
" bitter ,*" ptyedavog^ " that which causes shuddering.'''' 

4. Adjectives in -eiog commonly express an origin or 
source ; as, ^T/i'eiOf , [36eiog, iTrrreLog, firjXeiog, &c., " consist- 
ing of^^ or, " derived fronts geese, cattle^ horses, sheep^'' &:c. 
Others denote rather an agreement with, or resemblance to, 
a thing ; as, dvdpelog, " becoming a man ;" yvvamelog, " ef- 
feminate,^^ or, " becoming a womanP 

5. Adjectives in -eo^, contracted ovg^ express the mate- 
rial ; as, xpvatog, -ovg^ " made of gold ,*" Xiveog, -ovg, " made 
oflinen,^^ &c. 

6. Adjectives in -epog and -rjpog signify quality general- 
ly ; as, SoXepog, "crafty;''^ ofccepog, " shady, ^'' &c. Some 
express a propensity ; as, olvrjpog, " given to wine ;" /ca- 
fLarrjpog, " laborious,^'' "prone to labour, ^^ Others, again, 
have an active signification ; as, voaepog, or voarjpog, " cau- 
sing sickness ,•" <)xX'i]p6g^ " causing disquiet ;" vyLrjpog, " con- 
tributing to healthy 

7. Adjectives in '7]eig signify fulness ; as, SevSprjsig, 
"full of trees ;" nocTjeig, "full of grass ;" vXrjeig, "full of 
woodJ'' 

8. Adjectives in -ri'X.og signify a propensity to, and capa- 
bility or fitness for, anything ; as, aTrarriXog^ "prone to de- 

F2 



66 REMARKS ON THE TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 

ceit ;'' vnvr]?^6g, ^^ prone to sleep " To this the idea of ful- 
ness is nearly allied ; as, v6p7jX6g, " wateri/,^^ 

9. Adjectives in -iKog most commonly denote fitness or 
capability for anything ; as, rjyeiioviicdg, '^ fit for command;'''' 
/cvbepvrjTCKog, '^fit for piloting ^''^ &c. Other meanings are, 
1. belonging to anything ; rs, ocJiiaTticdg, ^^ corporeal ;^^ ipv- 
Xf-f^og^ '^ spiritual f^ 2. coming from anything; as, Trarpi- 
Kog, " derived from forefathers^''^ " hereditary ;^^ po'iicog, '''made 
of ox's hide.''^ 

10. Adjectives in Hjiog are of two classes, one derived 
from nouns and the other from verbs. Those from verbs 
have sometimes an active, sometimes a passive significa- 
tion ; as, (pv^ifiog, " one who fees ;" aXdjatfiog, ''pertaining 
to capture ;'* apGyaifiog, *' arable ;" jSpcoGifjLog, " edible.''^ Other 
adjectives in -iiiog, however, express merely a quality ; as, 
TTEvdifjiog, " mournful ;" dofafxog, " celebrated,^^ &c. 

11. Adjectives in -tvog and -etvog signify, 1. a material 
of which anything is made ; as, yrj'ivog, " made of earth ;" 
naXdiiivog^ " made of reeds f irXivdivog, " made of tiles^^ 
&:c. ; 2. a quality which arises from the magnitude or quan- 
tity of the thing expressed by the derivation ; as, rredtvog, 
" level f'' opeivog, "mountainous;^^ ofcoreLVog, " dark,^^ &c. 

12. Adjectives in -cog express a quality generally; as, 
kanepLog, "pertaining to evening;''^ '&aXdaaLog, "marine;^' 
aG)T7]pLog^ " saving.^^ If two adjectives are derived from 
one substantive, one in tog and the other in og, the latter 
expresses a quality generally ; the former denotes a prone- 
ness or tendency to that quality; as, fcaOapog, "pure;'" 
KaddpLog, " loving purity!'^ 

13. Adjectives in -oetg and -G)Eig signify a fulness ; as, 
lirjrLoeig, "full of prudent counsels ;" dfirreXosLg, "full of 
vines.'''' The termination (l)eig is used when the penult is 
long ; as, fcrjrojetg, (hrojetg, &;c. 

14. Adjectives in -cjSrjg express, 1. a fulness ; as, noC" 
Mrjg, " grassy ;" dvOeiicoSrjg, "flowery ;" 2. a resemblance ; 
as, a(j)7jfCG)67jg, " wasplike ;^^ (f)Xoyb)6rig, "shining like fire f^ 
dv6pG)6rjg, " manly. ^' In this sense these adjectives coin- 
cide with those in 'Oetdrjg, and are probably formed from 
them. 

15. Adjectives in -cdXog signify a propensity or tenden- 
cy to anything ; as, afiaprooXog, " prone to sin ;" ^ipevdojXogf 
^' prone to lying. '^ 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 67 

DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

1. The property expressed by an adjective can usually 
be attributed to more objects than one. Yet it is seldom 
found exactly to the same extent in one as in another, but 
it is possessed by one in an usual degree, by another in a 
higher or in a pre-eminent degree. 

2. Now, if one and the same property be attributed to 
two different objects, and these be compared with each 
other in reference to the measure of this property, there 
arises a new form of adjective, namely, the comparative, 

8. But, if a property exists in many objects, and one of 
them is to be distinguished as possessing this property in 
the greatest degree, this is also effected by a new form, 
called the superlative, 

4. These two forms are called degrees of comparison ; 
and, for the sake of uniformity, a corresponding appella- 
tion has also been given to the simple form of the adjec- 
tive, namely, the positive. Strictly speaking, however, the 
positive is no degree of comparison, but merely the primi- 
tive form, on which the comparison is based. 

FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

I. The degrees of comparison are formed from the pos- 

I itive ; namely, the comparative, by appending the termi- 
I nation -repog, a, ov ; and the superlative by appending -ra- 
rog, Tj, ov, 

II. These terminations are appended to the root of the 
( positive in the following manner : ' 

I 1. Adjectives in og and vg throw away g; as, 6etv6g, 
1 detvorepog, dstvorarog ; evpvg, evpvrepog, evpvrarog. 

If the penultimate syllable of adjectives in og is short in 
j the positive, then o is changed into g) in the comparative 
I and superlative ; as, aoipog, aocftcjrepog, GO^G)rarog ; KaOd- 
p6g^ icadapG)Tepog, nadapGirarog} 

1. This rule about the penult of the positive appears to have been 



68 FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

2. Adjectives in eoq^ contracted ov^, form their compar 
ative and superlative regularly from the uncontracted pos 
itive, and then undergo contraction ; as, Txop^vpeog^ contr, 
TTopcpvpovg, compar. TTOpipvpedjrepog, coutr. TTOpcpvpcjrepog^ 
superl. TTopcpvpedjrarog, contr. 7Top(pvpG)Tarog. 

3. Adjectives in oog, contracted ovg, append -Eorepog^ 
-eararog, to the root, and alvv^ays contract this termination 
with the syllable that precedes ; as, eiivoog, contr. evvovg^ 
compar. {evvoearepog) evvovarepog ; superl. (evvoeoTaTog) 
evvovorarog, 

4. Adjectives in -ag^ aiva, av, append repog and rarog 
to the neuter ; as, fisXag, [leXdvrepog, fisXavrarog. 

5. Adjectives in rjg and ecg shorten these terminations 
into eg, and then append repog and rarog ; as, dXrjOrjg^ 
dXrjBeorepog, dXrjdecrarog ; x^^P^^^^i xapieorepog, x^P^^^' 
rarog. 

6. But adjectives in rjg, genitive ov, of the first declen- 
sion, annex tarepog and wrarog to the root ; as, fcXeTTrrjg, 
nXercricrepog, nXeizriGrarog. 

7. Adjectives in (j)v append earepog and eararog to the 
root ; as, ou)(j)po)v, genitive odjcfypov-og, compar. oco^poveG- 
repog, super]. (JG)(f}pov eararog. 

8. Adjectives in 7]v annex earepog and eararog to the 
neuter ; as, reprjv, repevearepog, repeveorarog. 

9. Adjectives in f append iorepog and iorarog to the 
root, and sometimes earepog and eararog ; as, dpna^, gen- 
itive dpnay-og, compar. dpnay earepog, superl. dpnayLara- 
rog ; d(t)rjXL^, genitive dcbrjXtiC'Og, compar. dc^rjXirfcearepog, 
superl. d(j)r]XLKeararog. 

III. Some dissyllabic adjectives in vg and pog reject I 

caused by the conditions of hexameter verse, the oldest measure in the | 
Greek language, and by which that language itself was first fomied. \ 
Thus, for example, a comparative in OTEpoc, with the preceding syllable I 
short, consequently ^^^, would not have been admissible into the hexam- 
eter. The same objection would apply to a comparative in uripog, with 
the preceding syllable Jofig (except where another long syllable went be- 
fore the latter), since the result would be " . 



EXCEPTIONS TO THE PRECEDING RULES. 69 

these terminations, and use, in their stead, Iwv (neuter lov) 
for the comparative, and tarog^ rj^ ov for the superlative. 
Thus, y?iVfcv^, yX,vKlG)v, yXvmoTog ; aloxpo^, aiaxlo^v, 
aiaxiOTog. 

1. The adjectives compared in the latter way are, how- 
ever, but few in number, neither is this mode of compar- 
ison exclusively used even in their case, since the com- 
mon terminations orepog and vrepog, orarog and vrarog, 
also occur. 

2. Generally speaking, of those in pog, the formation 
iG)v^ icrog, predominates only in aloxpog and exOpog ; and 
of those in vg^ only in rjdvg and raxvg^ In all the others, 
the regular form must be regarded throughout as the more 
usual. Thus Ppadvrepog is the more common form, where- 
as ppadiwv occurs only in poetry. 

EXCEPTIONS TO THE PRECEDING RULES. 

1. Some adjectives in og reject o before repog and ra- 
rog ; as, yepatog, yepatrepog^ yspalrarog ; Trepalog, irepat' 
repog^ Trepairarog, &c. The adjective ^cXog has for its 
usual forms (piArepog, (jyiXrarog ; besides which, however, 
(biXacrepog, and even the regular ^iXoyrepog and (piXcioTarog, 
are also found. ^ 

2. Other adjectives, instead of o and 6), have more com- 
monly at or ig before the comparative and superlative ter- 
minations ; as, 

fieaog, pxaacrepog, fisaairarog, 

iSiog, Idiairepog, Idtairarog, 

7Tpo)cog, 7:pG)iaiTepog^ TrpojiaLTarog, 

Eppcofievog, sppojfievearepog, ippGyjieveOTarog, 
d(pdovog, ckfydovearepog, achOoveGrarog, 

doixevog, dc/fxevearepog^ daiieveGrarog, 

1. The three forms of the comparative and superlative of (pi^Mg appear 
to have been used by the ancients with a certain distinction in meaning. 
Thus, 6i%Tepo^ and (})tlraTOc signified " more friendly,^^ " dearest 
friend;''^ (biAairepor^ ^^more dear,^^ ^^ more esteemed;'''' and (pi^.uTepog, 
'^ more helovedV This distinction, however, has not, in general, been 
strictly observed. Rost^ G. G. p. 169. 



70 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 






XaMorepog, 



XaXicraroq, 
TTTCOxtorarog. 



3. In some of the adjectives which make the compara- 
tive in Lcjv and the superlative in iorog, th^ t of the ending 
LCt)v is rejected, and the last letter of the root, if d, i^, k^ or Xt 
changes into go (Attic rr). Thus, raxv^ (old form 6ax' 
vg), comparative rax^Cj^v, changed to 'ddoooyv, Attic -^dr^ 
TG)v. So, also, eXaxvg, comparative eXaxi^^v, changed to 
eXdaacov, Attic eXdrrdyv. In the same manner, also, must 
the comparative fidoGcov, oi [lajcpog, be explained. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

I. The comparative and superlative remain in several, 
adjectives, whose positive has grown into disuse. These 
are noted most easily in connexion with some extant posi- 
tive, to which they approximate the nearest in respect of 
signification. Hence the following list ; 



Good, ayadog. 



Bad. KaKdg, 

Long. fiaKpog, 
Great, (J^eyag, 



'' dlXSLV(ji)V^ 

dpei(x>v, 
peXrliov, 
PeXrepog, 
fcpsLoacov, ' 

KpeiTTCJV, 

Kdppcjv, [ 
Xcjicov, 

X(OG)V^ 



(f)epT£pog. 



] 



KafcojTspog, 

J fCaKLG)V, 

{ fiafcporepog, 
f fidaacoVy 



apiOTog. 

PsXrLOTog. 

(3eXrdrog. 

/cpdnarog, 

XiotoTog. 

XiboTog. 

(peprarog, 

(beptOTog, 

(jyepTLarog. 

tcaKG)rarog, 

KdfciOTog, 

Xspcarog. 

X^t^piarog, 

[xaKpordrog, 

firjfCLGTog. 

fjLeyiarog, 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



71 



j fxetorepog, 

Small* jjLtKpog, ^ fiisLCJv, iielarog. 

(kXaxog), eXdaaG)v, eXdxioroq, 

L 7]aaG)v, fjictaTog. 

Much. TToXvg, i j ^ ' i irXelcFTog: 

Easy, padiog, pacov, paarog, 

1. That these various forms were not used in exactly 
the same signification is certain ; but it is also equally cer- 
tain that no settled distinction between them was universal- 
ly observed. 

2. The proper comparative and superlative of dyadog, 
' namely, dyaOdjrepog and dyadcdrarog, occur only in later 

writers, and such as are not Attic ; as, for example, in Di- 
odorus Siculus, 16. 86. 

n. Some comparatives and superlatives are evidently de- 
rived from substantives, adverbs, and prepositions. Thus : 



Compar. 
TTporepog, 
vneprepog, 
dvcorepog, 
varepog, 



dovXoTspog, 
(iactXevrepog^ 



Superl. 
upoJTog, 
vneprarog, 
dvGjrarog, 
vararog, 
fcXeTTTLorarog, 
eraipdrarog, 



from 7Tp6, 
vnep. 



avG), 



KXeTTTTig. 
kraXpog. 
dovXog 
(SaaiXevg. 



To these may be added the following comparisons of ad- 
verbs. Thus : 



^V6J, 


dvcorepG), 


dvcjrdrG), 


Kdro) 


KarG)TepG), 


KarcordTG), 


Hoy, 


e^corepo), 


e^oyrdrG), 


€(76), 


eacdrepo), 


eacdrdrG), 


TTOppG), 


7T0ppG)TepG), 


TTOppGyrdrG) 



III. A few instances occur, where, to express a still 



72 T^UMERALS. 

higher gradation of an idea, a degree of comparison be- 
comes the positive to a new formation ; as, eaxct^rog, " last,''^ 
eaxdTCJTepog, eaxaTGyrarog, " last of all >'" irpoJTog, '^Jirst,'^* 
7Tpo)TLGTog, ^'Jlrst of all " " the very firsts 

IV. In many adjectives in Greek, as in other languages, 
the formation of a comparative and superlative from the 
root of the positive was not usual, but the gradation of idea 
was expressed by adding the adverbs fidXXov (" more^^) 
and fidAtara {" mosV). Thus, rpG^rog, " vulnerable,-^ rpo)- 
rog fjidXXov, " more vulnerable ;" 'Svrjrog, " mortal,'^^ '&V7]T6g 
udXXov, " more mortal ;" driXog, " evident" fj^aXXov drjXogf 
" more evident,''^ SrjXog iidXtara, " most evident." 

XXIII. NUMERALS. 

1. Numerals are either Cardinal or Ordinal. 

2. The cardinal numbers answer to the question, " how 
many ?" as, slg, " one ;" 6vo, " two ;" rpelg, " three" &c. 

3. The ordinal numbers answer to the question, " which 
in order ?" as, TTpoJrog, ^' first;" devrepog, " second;" rpirog^ 
" third," &c. 

4. For marks of number the Greeks employ the letters 
of their alphabet ; but, to make the number complete, they ' 
insert therein a g- after «, called enLorjfjiov, or Fav,^ and an- 
swering to our 6 ; and they also adopt two Oriental char- , 
acters, namely, Koppa, c^ for 90 ; and Sampi, "T) for 900.^ 

7. When the letters are employed to denote numbers, a i 
mark resembling an accent is placed over them ; but to des- 
ignate the thousands the same mark is placed below. Thus, \ 

1. The appellation GTcyjua is also sometimes given to this character. ; 
The name Yav refers to the circumstance of its occupying the place of; 
the digamma in the alphabetic order. 

2. The original mark for the Ko^vna was 9> whence comes the Latin | 
Q. The Iia/xm is no doubt to be traced back in name to the old name 
for the letter c, namely (rdv, and appears to have been formed from the \ 
union of this letter with a tt, the early form of the Greek S having been 
C. Buttman thinks that the earlier name of the numeral in question 
was 2dv, and that ^a^m came in as an appellation at a later period. 



NUMERALS. 73 

d is one, but a one thousand. So ti' is twenty, but ^ic twenty 
thousand. 

8. These marks above and below the letters are not ex- 
pressed in the case of every letter, when we have several 
letters placed side by side, and indicating a series of num- 
bers, but only over or below the last of each series. Thus 
we write vy;:^j3^for 53,602 ; and awA?'^ for 1838. 

9. The following combinations may serve as examples 
of the Greek system of notation. 



aVLE, 


1415. 


.7(^[^(, 


3846. 


>|£, 


9265. 


ica(pd, 


21,501. 


^ycprrd', 


3589. 


pveay\ 


155,203 


^^G)X6\ 


7832. 


n06\ 


89,004. 



i 



10. In place of this system of notation, the Athenians 
Adopted the following, which is far more striking to the 
pje. Thus : 

I , I, 1 , is the mark of unity. 
^ II, 2, \ 
III, 3, > express the other numbers above 5. 

|in, 4, ) 

n, 5, is the initial of Uevre. 

A, 10, " AsKa. 

H, 100, " KefcaTov, the old form for knardv, 

X, 1000, " XtXCoi. 

M, 10,000, " Mvpioi. 

The numbers between these are denoted partly by the 
Combination of the above marks ; as. All for 12 ; AA for 
to ; A A AniIII for 49 ; and partly by the multiplication of A, 
H, X, M, into five 11, these marks being placed within the 11 ; 
Q for Trevrafctr dena, five times ten, or 50 ; ]a[A for 
0; iHl for 500; ^ for 5000; XMHHHAAAnill for 
838. This manner of notation is particularly to be marked, 

G 



I 



74 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. 



since it has been preserved in many and important Attic in- 
scriptions.^ 

DECLENSION OF THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. 



Singular, 

slg, " oneJ^ 
N. elCf fitaj 



G. evof, 
D. eve, 
A. evGy 






^7\ 

hog, 

evi, 

h. 



Dual. 

6vOf " two,^ 

N. dvo and (Jiiw, 
G. dvoiv and dvelv, 
D. dvolvj 
A. 6vo. 



Plural. 

N. , 

G. dvibVf 
D. ^vo-i, 
A. . 



Plural. 

rpelg, " three. '^^ 

N. Tjoerf, Tpeif, rpifl, 
G. rpiCdv, TptiJVy TpLcJv, 

D. rpLGLy rpLGLy TpL(JC, 

A. rpeif, Tpelg, rpia. 



Plural. 

reGGapeg, ^'four,^^ 

N. reaaapeg, reaaapeg, riacapa, 
G. Teaoaptdv, reGadpov, reGadpuir^ 

D. TCGGapGL, T£GGapGC, TEGGapGC, \ 

A. TEGGapag, TEGGapag, reGcapa. 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. 

1 . In the epic writers the form la is found for iiia ; and 
only once Icp for evi. {II. 7. 422.) 

2. From the composition of this numeral with ov6e and 
[iride arise the negative adjectives ovSetg and fiTjdeig, which 
are declined in the same manner ; as, nom. ovSeCg, ovde- 
fjita, ovdev ; genitive ovdsvog, ovSefiLdg, ovSevog, &;c. The 
later Greek writers make it ovOetg and firjOetg, from ovre ' 
and jf/T/re, which, however, is not considered genuine Attic, j 

3. Ovdetg and firjdeLg are often separated, and written 
ovSe elg, and fj.7j6e elg, &c., and this separation increases | 
the negative signification. Thus, ov6e elg, " not even one ;^ ^ 
ov6^ v^' kvog, " not even hy one^"* Sic. I 

4. The numeral elg, from its very nature, can have no, 
plural, but ovdetg and jjLrjdetg have ovdeveg and fjbrjdevsg, in 
the sense of " insignificant,^^ '* of no value.'''' j: 

1. For an account of the arithmetic of the Greeks, consult Delambre, ,; 
Histoire de V Astronomic Ancienne, vol. li., p. 3, seq. 



SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 



75 



1. Avo is the Attic mode of writing. In Homer and 
Herodotus it is often indeclinable. I^velv is of more rare 
occurrence than dvolv, and is only used in the genitive. 
I!^vG)v is sometimes written dvcliv, and regarded as Ionic for 
Svolv. But Sviov is preferable as a genitive plural.^ 

2. AvG) appears to have been, in fact, the dual number of 
the old form 6v6g, "AjicpG) accords in great measure with 
dvG). In the old poets it is frequently indeclinable. Oth- 
erwise d[i(f)OLv is used in the genitive and dative. 



I 1. Instead of reooapeg the Ionic dialect has reaaepeg, 
the jEolo-Doric rerropeg. Hesychius gives ireoGvpeg as 
an jEolic form. 

2. For reoaapoi or rerrapaL in the dative, the form teT' 
paoi occurs in the poets. 



SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 



Cardinal. 



Ordinal, 



1 


a' 


ek, 


1st 


TrpcJTog, 


1 2 


/3' 


6vo, 


2d 


dEVTEpog, 


3 


/ 


rpdg, 


3d 


rpiTog, 


4 


& 


reaaapeg, 


4th 


TsrapTogy 


5 


s' 


irevre, 


5th 


iTEfirrrog^ 


6 


7' 


e^, 


6th 


EKTOg, 


X 7 


^ 


kiztdy 


7th 


E66o[iog, 


1 ^ 


v' 


OKTU, 


8th 


oydoog, 


9 


-&' 


evveay 


9th 


Evvarog, 


10 


c 


deK.a, 


10th 


SiKarog^ 


11 


La' 


evdeica, 


11th 


EvSsKarogy 


^ 12 


I?' 


duSsKa, 


12th 


dodenarog, 


13 


f-Y 


TptGKaldsKa, 


13th 


TpcaKaiSeKaTog, 


14 
15 


i6' 


TeGaapeoKaideKa, 


14th 


TEGGapafcaiSefcaTog, 


IE' 


7revT£KatdeKaf 


15th 


TTEVTEKatdEKarogj 


• 16 


i<:' 


ennaideKa^ 


16th 


EKKatdEKarog, 


17 


i^ 


ETrraKaldeKa, 


17th 


ETTTafcatdEKaTog, 


IS 


17]' 


oKTCJuaideKa, 


18th 


buTCjuaidEKarog, 


J 20 


V^' 


hveaKalSeKay 


19th 


EVVEaKatdEKarog, 


k' 


ELKOaC, 


20th 


ELKOGTOg, 


fl 21 


Ka' 


eIkoglv Elg, 


21st 


ELKOGTOg irpojTogy 


1 22 


k6' 


eIhogl 6vo^ &c., 


22d 


EtKOGTOg SEVTEpOg, 


'1 ^^ 


X 


Tptafiovra^ 


30th 


rptaKOGTogy 



1. PassoWf Lex. s. v. 



76 



SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 



31 


16. 


40 


H-^ 


50 


7/ 


60 


f 


70 


0' 


80 


it' 


90 


^ 


100 


p' 


200 


& 


300 


r 


400 


V" 


500 


¥ 


600 


X' 


700 


r 


800 


0' 


900 


2)' 


1000 


«. 


2000 


ft 


8000 


7. 


4000 


S^ 


5000 


£, 


6000 


f. 


7000 


c 


8000 


V. 


9000 


^. 


10,000 


L^ 


20,000 


K^ 


100,000 


P' 



TptaKOvra elg, 


31st 


TpCaKOGTOC TTpUTOC, 


TEGaapdaovray 


40th 


TEGGapaKOGTOg, 


'KEVTijuovra, 


50th 


TTEVTTIKOGTOCt 


E^rjKovra, 


60th 


t^TjIiOGTOg, 


E^doflTjKOVTa^ 


70th 


E66ojLL7jKOGr6g, 


bydoTjKovra^ 


80th 


OydoTJKOGTO^f 


EVEvyiiovTay 


90th 


EVEVT/KOGTOg, 


EKarov, 


100th 


EKaroGTOc, 


diaKOGLOL, 


200th 


diaKOGLOGTOg, 


TptaHOGiOiy 


300th 


TpLaKOGLOGTOgy 


TEGGapaHOGLOi, 


400th 


TEGGapaKOGiOGTOg, 


TCEVTaKOGiOLy 


500th 


TTEVTaKOGLOGTOCj 


E^aKOGlOlf 


600th 


i^aKOGcoGTog, 


ETTTaKOGLOlf 


700th 


ETTTaKOGLOGTOg, 


OKTaKOGlOt, 


800th 


OKTaKOGLOGTOg, 


EVVafiOGiOi, 


900th 


EVVaKOGlOGTOgy 


Xi^iot, 


1000th 


XL^tOGTOgj 


SiGxi'^^ioi, 


2000th 


diGx^^i-OGTog, 


TpLGXi^l-OL, 


3000th 


rpLGXi^^tOGTogf 


TETpaKtGXt^tOtf 


4000th 


TETpaKtGXt?ilOGT6gj 


TTevraKtGxt^toLj 


5000th 


TTEVraKLGXi^tOGTOgj 


e^aicLGxO^totj 


6000th 


E^aKLGXl^lOGTOg, 


ETTTaKLGxi^tOlf 


7000th 


ETTTaKLGXt'^iOGTOg, 


OKTaKLGXcTlLOLj 


8000th 


OKTaHiGXl'^l'OGTOg, 


evvaKLGXiy^ioiy 


9000th 


EvvaniGXi^iOGTog, 


flVpLOL, 


10,000th 


flVpiOGTOg, 


dcGjLLVpLOL, 


20,000th 


dlG/LLVpLOGTOg, 


dsKaKLGljLVpiOL. 


100,000th 


dEKaKLGflVpiOGTOg. 


Multiph 


catives. 




clTrAot'f,! 


Simple 


> 


diTzlovg, 


DovMe 


) 


TpcnXovCi 


Treble 


» 


TETpaTrTiovc, 


Quadr 


uple, 


TTEVTaizTiovg, 


Five ft 


M, 


&c. 


&c. 





Adverbs of Number. 



aira^y 


Once, 


dig, 


Twice, 


Tpig, ^ 


Thrice, 


TETpUKLgy 


Four iimeSy 


TTEvraKLgy 


Five times, , 


&c. 


&c. 


1. For the declension of dirlovgy which will serve as a guide to that} 


of the rest, see page 50. 





REMARKS ON THE NUMERALS. 77 

REMARKS ON THE NUMERALS. 

1. In compound numbers, either the less are put after 
the greater without a conjunction ; as, eticoGc rpelg, rpcd- 
Kovra rrevre ; or, what is most usual, the less precede and 
are connected with the greater by icac ; as, rpelg Kal eltcoac, 
iTsvrs Kal rpidtcovra. 

2. So, also, in the more complicated numbers, the sev- 
eral parts are united in such a manner as to proceed from 
the less to the greater ; as, rerrapa not sddofirjicovTa Kal 
EvvaKoaia Kal TpLCx'i^^iOb Kal e^aKLafJbvpia, which express 
63,974. 

3. For the greater numbers a numeral substantive is 
frequently used with the requisite cardinal number ; as, 
dsKa [xvpLadeg, 100,000 ; rpiax^Xtot Kal Trevrs [ivptddeg, 

, 53,000, <fec. 

( 4. In the case of tens compounded with 8 or 9, the defi- 
nition is often given by subtraction ; as, rpiaKOvra Svolv 
deovTOLv or dsovra, 28 ; dydorjKOVTa evbg dsovrog, 79 ; or, 
if a substantive of the feminine gender stands therein, iicdg 
deova7]g, 

5. Of the cardinal numbers, the first four and the round 
numbers from 200 are alone declined. All the rest are 
indeclinable. 

6. The Latin distributives are expressed in Greek by 
compounding the cardinal numbers with avv ; as, ovvdvo, 
^' two by two ;" avvrpeig, " three hy three ^^^ Slc. 

7. Besides the forms of ordinal numbers which have just 
been given in the synopsis, two ordinals are also frequently 
contracted by Kai ; as, Trefinrog Kal dsKarog ; bydoog Kal 
SeKarog, &c. 

8. The smaller ordinal number is also sometimes pre- 
fixed to the greater cardinal or ordinal with Kal and a prep- 
osition ; as, T^ eKTX} snl 6eKa, supply rjfjbspaLg, '' on the sixth 
in addition to ten days,"^^ i. e., " on the sixteenth,''^ So, also, 
TTj EKTXf fier' elKdSa, " on the twenty-sixth,'^^ Slc, 

9. In order to express half or fractional numbers in mon- 
ey, measures, and weights, the Greeks used words com- 
pounded of the name of the weight, &;c. (viz., fivd, odoXog, 
rd/^avTOv), with the adjective termination ov, lov, alov, 
and fjfjLL, " Aa//*," and placed before them the ordinal number 
of which the half is taken. . Thus, reraprov rjfjUTdXav- 
Tov, " 3^ talents,^^ i. e., the first a talent, the second a tal- 

G2 



I 



78 PRONOUNS. 

ent, tlie third a talent, the fourth a half-talent. So, also, 
rpLTOv 7]iiLfivalov, " 2J mince,'^^ eddofiov rji^idpaxfiov, " 6^ 
drachmceJ^ 

10, From the foregoing, however, we must carefully 
distinguish such phrases as the following : rpta rjfjLLrd' 
Xavra, " 1-^- talents,^^ i. e., three half-talents ; rrevre rjiiLn* 
vala, " 2| 7nin(B,'" &:c. 

11. From the ordinal numbers are derived, 1. Numerals 
in alog, which commonly answer to the question, '' on what 
day ?" as, rpiTalog, " on the third day ;" denaralog, " on the 
tenth day.''^ 2. Multiple numbers in -([xiGLog (besides those 
already mentioned in -nXovg) ; as, dicpdaiog, rptclxxGcog, 
&,c. 3. Proportionals, answering to the question, "how 
much more ?" as, diTrXdaiog, rpiTrXdaiog, rerpanXdacog, 
'^ twice, thrice, four times as much." 

XXIV. PRONOUNS. 
All pronouns serve to supply the place of a noun, but, at 
the same time, they give different relations of the substan- 
tive which they represent. According to these relations 
so expressed by them, they are divided into the following 
classes : 

1. Personal Pronouns, which express the simple idea of 
person, and directly represent the same. These are, 

eyo), I, 
ov, thou, 
ov, of him. 

2. Possessive Pronouns, which are formed from the per- 
sonal, and indicate the property of an individual ; as, 



eii'Og, 


-n^ 


'OV, 


mmSy 


o6g, 


OTj, 


GOV, 


thine, 


k, 


V^ 


OV, 


his, 


Tjfxerep'Og, 


-a. 


'OV, 


our. 


vfierep'Og, 


-a, 


'OV, 


your^ 


acperep-og. 


-a. 


'OV, 


theif, 


vmrep'Og, 


-a. 


'OV, 


of us DOth, 


o^cjcrep-og, 


-a, 


'OV, 


of you both. 



PRONOUNS. 79 

3. Definite Pronoun^ for the nearer and stronger distinc- 
tion of one object from another ; as, avrog, avrrj, avro, " he 
himself;' " she herself;' ^' itself 

4. Reflexive Pronouns, for the more accurate indication 
and separation of a person ; as, 

of myself 
of thyself 




ovTog, 


aVTT], 


TOVTO 


bds, 


^6e, 


rode, 


eicelv'og, 


-n^ 


'0, 



avTTjgj avrovj of himself 



5. Demonstrative Pronouns, which distinctly point out 
the object of which we are discoursing, with the accessory 
idea of place. These are, 



this. 



6. Relative Pronou7is, which refer to an object already 

mentioned, and give it a nearer definition ; as, 

tf f/ f/ J 

og, rj, 0, who, 

bong, ^Ttg, on, whoever. 

7. Indefinite Pronouns, which merely indicate an object 
generally, without farther definition ; as, 

ng (enclitic), ng, n, any, 

dslva, delva, delva, some one, 

8. Interrogative Pronoun ; as, 

rig, rig, ri, who? what? 

9. Reciprocal Pronoun, which designates the mutual ac- 
tion of different persons upon each other; as, aXXriXoiv^ 
dual; aXXriXG)v, pkral, " of each other P 



80 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 
1. Personal. 



Singular. 
^. hyu . . . . 
G. kfiov or iiov 
D. kfjLoi or (JLOi 
A. kfis ox lie . . 



'Eyci, /. 



J, 

of me, 
to me, 
me. 



Dual. 
N. vdiy contr. vw, w^e two, 
G. ;^(jiV, " a>cjv, of us two, 

A. vdi, " v(5, W5 two. 



N. ^^etf 
G. ;7/z(5v 
D. rjjilv 
A. J7/^af 



Plural. 



WCy 

of us, 
to us, 
us. 



liV, thou. 



Singular. 

N. (7v . » . . . thou, 

G. GOV of thee, 

D. cot to thee, 

A. ae . • . , . thee. 



Dual. 

N. (j(j)CJt, contr. c^cj, yow <2/;o. 



G. Gcpulv, 
D. G(j>C)'Cv, 
A. c^wi", 



N. v^etf 
G. v^wv 
D. viilv 
A. v/zaf 



Plural. 



you, 
of you, 
to you, 
you. 



G(p(bv, of you two, 
Gipuv, to you two, 
c(j>G), you two. 



Ov, of him. 



Singular. 
N. Wanting. 
G. oi . . . of him, 
D. ol . . . to him, 
A. f ... him. 



Dual. 
N. (7(j)0)e . they two, 



G. acjxjtv 
D. G(f>utv 
A. Gijxje 



Plural. 
N. G(l>€Lc, neuter Gcpea, they, 
G. Gcpcjv, of them, 

D. G(f)CGt, to them, 

A. (70af, neuter G(j>€a, they. 



of them two, 
to them two, 
they two. 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 



81 



2. Reflexive. 
'E[j,avTOv, of myself. 



Singular. 
N. (kycj avTog), (kyo) avTTJ), 
G. kfiavTOv, kfj.avT7iC} 

D. kfiaVTUy kfiavry, 

A. tjuavTovy kfLavTTjv. 



Plural. 

N. TjjLLetc avTot, yfieig avrai, 

G. Tifjicbv avTcJv, 7)fiC)v avTuv^ 

D. yfilv avTolg^ ijfuv avTat^y 

A. vfidc avTOvg, 7][idg avrdg. 



llsavTOVy of thyself 

Singular. 
N. (av avTog), {gv avr^), 

G. aeavTOv or aavrovy GeavTTJg or aavryCy 
J). aeavrC) or aavrcj, GeavTy or GavTTjy 
A. aeavTov or oavrov, Geavrrjv or cavTTjv. 

Plural. 
N. vfislg avTot, vfielg avraty 

G. VfZCJV aVTCJV, VjLLCJV aVTCJVf 

D. vftlv avrolgy vfiiv avralg, 

A. Vfidg avTOvg, v/xag avrdg. 



N. (avTog), 
G. eavTOv or avrovy 
D. eavTG) or at'r^j, 
A. eavTov or avrov, 



''Eavrov, of himself 
Singular. 

{aVTTJ), 

eavTTjg or avTrig, 
eavry or ci;r^, 
kavTTjv or avTTjv, 



N. {a(l>eig avrot), 
G. eavTcJv or avrcJVj 
D. tavTolg or avroig, 
A. kavTOvg or avrovg. 



Plural, 
(acpetg avral), 
eavTcJv or avruv, 
eavracg or avralgy 
eavrdg or avrdg^ 



(avrS), 

eavTov or avrovy 
eavru or ai;r63, 
^avro or aird. 



{G(p£a avrd), 
eavTtbv or avTcJv, 
eavTolg or avrolg, 
iavrd or aira. 



3. Demonstrative, 
OvTog, this. 



Singular. 

N. otSrof, ai;r?7, rovro, 
G. rotiroi;, Tavrrjg, rovrov, 
D. roitrcj, ratSTr/, rovrcp, 

A. TOVTOVj TaVTTJV, TOVTO. 



Dual. 



N. roilrcj, ravra^ tovtq, 

G. TOVTOLVy ravraiv, tovtolv, 

D. TOVTOLVy ravracvy rovro tVy 

A. rovroj ravra, rovro. 



82 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 



Singular. 

N. Of, ^, 5,^ 

G. ov, ^f, ot*, 

D. c5, ^, 9, 

A. dj^, ^v, 6. 



P/wra/. 

N. ovTotf avraty ravra, 

G. Tovrcjv, roiSrwv, tovtcjv, 

D. TOVTOL^j TavraLCy TOVTOlCf 

A. Toi^rovf, raiiTaf, raiJra. 



4. Relative, 

"Og, who, which, what. 
Dual. 



Plural. 



N. L)j a, w, 

G. olvj alvy olvy 

D. oLvy alv, olVy 

A. w, a, u. 

*0(7T^f, whoever. 



N. oZ, aZ, ^, 

G. <JV, UV, UVy 

D. oZf, aZf, olgy 

A. ovf, df, tt. 



Singular. 

N. 6o"rif, ^Tif, on, 

G. OVTLVOC, TfGTLVOgy OVTLVOCy 

D, UTCVi, yTLViy <l)TlVty 

A. dvTLva, 7]VTLvay on. 



Dual. 

N. (Jini'e, artvE^ (oTivEf 

G. olvTLVOlVy alvTLVOLVy olvTLVOLV, 
D. olvTLVOLVy alvTLVOLV, olvTtVOLVy 

A. cjTivey dTtv£y UTLve. 



Plural. 

N. OLTLveCf aiTcveCy artvay 

G. WVrtl'CJ^', (JVTLVOVy 0)VTlV(A>Vy 

D. olanaL, alaTLGt, oloTLffty 

A. ovGTLvac, acTLvagy anva. 



Singular. 

N. Tif, T^f, Tty 

G. rtVOf, TiVOf, T6V0f, 

D. TLVtj TLviy Tiviy 

A. TLvdy TLvdy ri. 



5. Indefinite. 

Ttg, any. 

Dual. 

N. TLVSy TLVEy TLVEy 
G. TLVOLVy TLVOlVy TLVOlv, 
D. TLVOLVy TLVOLVy TLVOLV, 
A. TLVEy TLVEy TLVE. 



Plural. 

N. TLVEC, TLVECy TLvdy 
G. TLVCJVy TLVCOVy TLVUV, 
D. ncj/, TlGLy TLCLy 

A. Tivaf, Tivaf, Tivd. 



^elva, a certain one. 
Singular. Dual. 



N. 6y ^, TO Setva, 

G. ro-iJ, r^f, TOVy delvog, 

D. TU, T^y tC), dELVLy 

A. TOVy TTjVy TO ■ dELva. 



N. TU, rdy TUy dELVEy 

G. TOlVy TalVy TOLVy dELVOLVy 

D. TOlVy TalVy TOLVy dELVOLVy 

A. TUy rdy r(j, (Jetve. 



REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 83 







Plural. 




N. 


ol, 


al 


delveg^ 


G. 


TUV, 


TCJVf 


Selviov, 


D. 


TOlC) 


ralg, 


delac, 


A. 


TOVC, 


rag, 


delvag. 



6. Interrogative, 
The interrogative differs from the indefinite ng merely 
in the position of the accent. The indefinite is always en- 
clitic, and, in the oblique cases, takes the accent on its 
ending. On the contrary, the interrogative, even in a con- 
nected discourse, remains always acuted in the nominative, 
and in the oblique cases preserves the accent on the radical 
syllable. 

r/f, who? 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



N. Tig^ rig, tU 

G. TLvog, rtvog, rivog^ 

D. TLVL, TLVtf TiVt, 

A. Tivay Tivaj re. 



N. Tcve^ rive, rtve^ 

G. TLVOCV, rCVOLV, TLVOLVy 
D. TLVOtV, TLVOLV, TLVOCV, 
lA. TLVe, TlV€y TLVe. 



N. TLveg, TLveg, rlva, 

G. TCVCJVf TCVQV, rlviOVf 
D. TtCrt, TLGLy TLCyt, 

A. Tcvag, rivaq^ riva. 



7. Reciprocal, 

Dual. Plural. 

N. . . 



N. Wanting. ■ 

G. hXkrfkoiVy aXkifkaiVy aXkrj'kotv, 
D. oXkifKoiVy a^JkrjXaLVy aWiikoiv ., 
A. a}^'krik(ji., bXkrfka^ oXkriKiji. 



G, aXkr]7\,o)v, aTCkrjTiov, aXkrjXcdv, 
D. aTiXyXotg^ bXhrfkaig^ aXkifkoig^ 
A. aXkrjT^ovg, aXhrfkag^ aXkiika. 



REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 
1. Personal, 

1. The forms k\iQv^ efiot, eiie, are employed whenever 
emphasis is required. On other occasions fiov, [xoc, and 
lie are employed. 

2. In the dual number the forms vg)^ vc^v ; ocpo), ocpcov, 
are Attic. 

3. In the plural, rjnelg and vfielg appear to have come 
from 7]{jbeeg and vfieeg ; while, in the dative, rjfilv and v[uv 
are contracted from thiecl, vfieac, and then the v £(pe?LKvc- 
riKov is appended. 



84 DIALECTS OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

4. The pronoun ov is generally reflexive in the Attic 
writers. In Homer and Herodotus, on the contrary, it is 
more frequently a mere personal pronoun. 

5. AvTog, avrrj, avro, was used for the third person, 
but with this distinction. In the nominative always, and 
in the oblique cases when these begin a clause, it has a 
reflexive signification, " he himself,'^ " she herself,^^ " of 
himself,''^ &c. But when the oblique cases do not begin a 
clause, they have merely the force of the personal pronoun, 
" AzT??," " of him,^^ &c. When the article precedes, as 6 
avTog, 7] avrrj, <fec., the meaning changes to " the samej^ 
<fec. Thus, 6 avTog, " the same man ;" rj avrrj, " the same 
woman ;" to avro (contracted most commonly ravro), " the 
same thing J^ 

Dialects of the Personal Pronouns, 

1. The iEolo-Doric had eycjv, the iEolic eycjv, in the . 
nominative. The Boeotians said icjv. 

2. Instead of av the jEolians and Dorians said rv 
(whence the Latin tu), and changed a into r throughout. 

3. In order to give more expression to the pronouns, the 
Dorians and ^olians annex rj to the termination, through 
all the cases, and sometimes, also, vrj ; as, eycdvrj, kfievvq, 
Tvvrj, Slc. The Attics annex ye, throwing back the ac- 
cent ; as, eycjys, avye ; instead of which the Dorians use 
ya, as eycjvya. 

4. In the genitive only efieo is found, not fiso ; and, in 
the lyric and epic poets, efielo and aelo ; as also efj^dsv 
and aedev ; these latter, likewise, in the tragic dialect. As 
the Attic dialect contracted eo into ov, the Ionic, Doric, 
and iEolic contracted the same into ev ; as, efiev, oev. 

5. In the dative, the iEolians and Dorians said also eiiiv 
and riv, whence rivr], and the Tarentine efj^ivrj, arose. 
For the enclitic aot the epic poets and Herodotus use rot. 

6. In the dual the forms vg), vg)v ; cr(/)65, a(f)U)v, are Attic. 
In the plural, rjfjielg and vjjielg come from rjfjiesg and vfiesg. 
Instead of rjfielg the iEolians and Dorians said djieg or d[jieg, 
and ajiiieg ; and for vfielg, vfxeg and viifieg. 

7. The genitive plural is lengthened by the poets into 
7jfieco)v, vfietoyv. The iEolians and Dorians changed as 
usual the rj into a ; as, dfiecjv, dfiGJv, and dfUfjiGyv. 

8. In the dative plural, the old dialect, and the iEolic 



REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 85 

and Doric, had afilv, afitv, d[jiLV, diific ; vfiLV, vfiiic, and 

9. In the accusative plural, the Dorians said d/xe, dfie, 
and d//^£, dfifie ; and also viie, vfijis, the latter being used 
likewise by the iEolians. 

10. Instead of the accusative avrov, we find, particularly" 
in the poets, the form [itv of all three genders. Another 
form is vlv, which occurs in Pindar, and is the only one 
employed by the tragedians. This form vlv is also used 
for avTovg, avrdg, avrd. 

1 1 . The dative ocbt for (jcptoL occurs in Homer and else- 
where. The tragedians appear to have used G<piv alone. 
The poets sometimes, though very rarely, employ it for the 
dative singular also. 

12. In the poets, too, the form (jcpe (abbreviated from 
G(f)G)e) occurs, which is sometimes used as the accusative 
plural in all genders, for avrovg, avrdg, avrd ; and some- 
times, also, as the accusative singular, instead of avrov, 
avrrjv, avrd ; and also, again, as a pronoun reflexive for 
iavrov, 

2. Possessives, 

1. The form s6g, erj, eov, occurs only in the singular in 
the Ionic and Doric writers, and in the poets. Instead of 
this is used the abbreviated form dg> Neither s6g nor 6g is 
ever employed by the Attic prose writers ; but 6g for eog 
occurs several times in the tragedians. 

2. Instead of rjfierepog, the Dorians employed dfiog. 
This same dfiog was likewise used for ejuLog, as rjfxelg for 
eyu). The iEolians said dfifiog and diiiierepog, 

3. The form atperepog is used by the later Alexandrian 
i poets for the pronoun possessive of the first and second 
\ person plural, and in one instance even for efiog, 

4. The form acpmrepog occurs only once (//. 1, 216). 
l^mrepog is found only in the Ionic poets. 

3. Pronoun Definite. 

This has already been considered in the remarks under 
the personal pronouns, § 5, <fec. 

H 



86 REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 

4. Reflexives. 

1. The reflexive pronouns are formed by tlie union of 
the genitives e/xeo, aeo, eo, with the pronoun avrog, in all 
the cases except the nominative. 

2. Strictly speaking, efxavrov and aeavrov have no plu- 
ral. A form for this number, however, is generally substi- 
tuted, consisting of rjfielg avrot and viielg avroi, declined 
separately. 

3. The pronoun eavrov is declined throughout the plural 
as one word ; yet we also find a(poJv avrcov, Gcpioiv avrolg, 
acpdg avTOvg, &c. 

4. Properly, according to the composition, only the gen- 
itive of these pronouns should have been in use ; and it is 
owing to an arbitrary usage that e/zeo, &c,, are compounded 
with the dative, accusative, <fec., of avrog. 

5. Among the Attics, these pronouns are reflexive only, 
referring to the person implied in the verb, without any 
particular emphasis derived from avrog. Thus, ervipa 
efj^avTOv, "• I struck myself ^^ (as, in English, " I wash my- 
self"). When the Attic writers, on the other hand, wish 
to make avrog emphatic, they separate the pronouns, and 
place avrog first. Thus, irpbg avrov ae, " against thee thy- 
self,^^ A similar usage prevails in Homer and Herodotus. 

5. Demonstrative. 

1. Instead of ode, fjSs, rode, where the enclitic de is an- 
nexed to the article, in order to give it greater force, the 
Attics say 661, rjdc, rode, which is analogous to the Latin 
hicce. 

2. Homer annexes the termination of the case to the de ; 
as, rolodeoL, roladeoaL, &c. 

3. Instead of rolaSe, the form roioide is common in the 
tragic writers, with the accent on the penult, because the 
enclitic (5e draws the accent of the principal word to itself. 

4. Ovrog is used as an emphatic mode of address, and, 
therefore, as a vocative, " thou there^'' like the Latin heus, 

5. The Attics annex i to this pronoun in all cases and 
genders, to give a stronger emphasis, in which case it re- 
ceives an accent ; as, rovrovt, ravrrjt, &Lc. In the neuter, 
this L takes the place of o and a ; as, rovrt, ravri. 

6. The Attics sometimes used rovrov for rovro^ roaov' 



REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 87 

rov for TOGovTO, tolovtov for roiovro. This appears to 
have arisen from their attachment to the v e^eXuvoTLKOv. 
In the same way, the Attics frequently said ravrov for to 
avro. 

6. Relative. 

1. Homer says o rig for oGng, where o is a prefix sylla- 
ble, as in OTTolog, onoaog, &c., and he retains, with the rest 
of the Ionic writers, the 6 unchanged in all the cases ; as, 
brev for ovrivog, breo) for ayrcvt, &lc. The Attics retained 
similar forms in the genitive and dative singular, namely, 
brov for ovrcvog, and oro) for g)tcvi. The full form is very 
rare in the Attic poets. 

2. Instead of the plural anva, Homer and Herodotus 
have dacra, from the Doric ad for rtvd. The Attics, instead 
of this, say arra, 

7. Indefinite, 

1. The lonians said for rtvog, tlvl, &c., reo and reo). 
The Attics contracted rov, rep, in all the genders, for rivog 
and TLVL. 

2. Instead of the neuter plural rtvd, the Attics said, in 
certain combinations, particularly with adjectives, drra ; 
as, dXX' drra ; rotavr' drra. 



88 VERB. 



XXV. VERB. 

1. Greek verbs are of two kinds, those ending in o) and 
those in p. 

2. Verbs in co are of two classes : 1. Those that have a 
consonant before o) ; as, tvittg), " / strike ;" Xeyo), " I 
say ,*" and, 2. Those which have a vowel, a, e, o, before 
it ; as, TCfido), " / honour ;" (f)LXeG), " / love ;" ;!^pv(j6a), " / 
gild:' 

3. Verbs in o), with a consonant preceding the termina- 
tion, are called Barytone Verbs, because, as they have the 
acute accent on the penult of the present, the grave accent 
[jSapvg Tovog) necessarily falls on the last syllable. 

4. Verbs in 6), preceded by a vowel, are called Contract- 
ed Verbs, because the cj is contracted by the Attics, to- 
gether with the preceding vowel, into one vowel ; and as, 
after this contraction, a circumflex is placed over the o), 
they are also styled by some Circumflex Verbs, 

5. These contracted verbs, however, are not at all differ- 
ent from the barytones, since it is only necessary to con- 
tract them in the present and imperfect. 

PARTS OF THE VERB. 

1. The Greek verb has three voices. Active, Passive, 
and Middle, and five moods ; the Indicative, Imperative, 
Optative, Subjunctive, and Infinitive, 

2. The tenses are nine in number, namely, the Present, 
Lnperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, First and Second Future, 
First and Second Aorist, and, in the passive, the Third 
Future, or, as it is less correctly styled, the Paulo-post- 
futurum, 

3. The numbers are three, Singular, Dual, and Plural, 



VERB. 89 



The Verb 'E^^t, to he. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. eIiil, I arrif Elg or el, thou art, egtl, he is. 

Dual. EGToVj you two are, egtov, they two are. 

Plur. EGjLtEVj we are, egte, ye are, eIgc, they are. 

Imperfect-, ^v, I was. 



D. 

P. Vf^EV, 


TjTE, 

Future, EGOfiai, I will he. 


7] or TIV, 

7]Triv, 

riGav. 


S. EGOfiat, 

D. EGOflEdoV, 
P. EGO/jLEda, 


EGEL, 

egegQov, 
egegOe, 


EGETaC, 

egegOoVj 
EGovrau 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect, IgOc, be thou. 



S. 
D. 
P. 



IgOl or 1(70, 


EGTO), 


EGTOV, 


EGTCOV, 


EGTE, 


EGTQGaV 



OPTATIVE MOOD. 





Present 


AND Imperfect, 


eItiv, may I be. 


s. 


eItjv, 


EITJC, 


eIt], 


D. 
P. 


ElriflEV, 


Ecyrov, 

ElriTE, 


EirjTrjv, 
EtTjGav or Ecev* 




Future, 


EGotfiTjv, may I be about to be. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


EGoifirjv, 

EGOl/LLEdoV, 
EGOCflEda, 


EGOiO, 

egolgOov, 
egolgBe, 


EGOLTO, 

EGOLGdrjV, 

EGOiVTO. 




SUBJUNCTIVE 


MOOD. 




Present 


AND Imperfect, w, I may be. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


T 


TJTOV, 
TiTE, 

H2 


TjTOV, 

uai. 



90f 







VERB. 








INFINITIVE MOOD. 








Present and Imperfect. 








elvacj to be. 








Future. 








eaeadaiy to be about to be> 








PARTICIPLES. 








Present. 




N. 
G. 


OVTOCi 


ov(Ta, 
ovarjg, 

Future. 


6v, 
ovTog, &c. 


N. 
G. 


kaofievoCj 
kaofievov^ 


k(yofiEvy, 

kaOjLlEVTjgj 

VERBS IN 0). 


EGO/ilEVOVj 

kaofiEvov, (fee 



1. There are four conjugations of verbs in o), distin- 
guished from each other by the termination of the first fu- 
ture active.^ Thus : 

The First Conjugation makes the future in ^ipo) ; as, 

TV7TT0), rv'ipG) ; XeiiTG), XetipG) : pdnrG), pd^po). 
The Second Conjugation makes the future in ^g) ; as, 

Xeyco, Xe^g) ; rdaoG), rd^G) ; apx^), dp^G). 
The Third Conjugation makes the future in gg) ; as, 

TLG), rioG) ; TreidG), ttslgg) ; OKevd^G), oicevdaG). 
The Fourth Conjugation has a liquid before g) in the 

termination of the future ; as, 'ipdXXG), ipaXco ; aneL- 

pci), anepGj ; fisvG), fisvG). 

2. When the first person plural ends in [lev, the first 
person of the dual is wanting. In other words, the first 
person dual is wanting throughout the whole of the active 
form, and in the aorists of the passive.^ 

1. We have followed, for convenience' sake, the common arrange- 
ment, by which verbs in o are divided into four conjugations. The 
simplest and truest plan, however, is to divide all Greek verbs into 
merely two conjugations, namely, verbs in o and verbs in fiC. 

2. Here, again, we have followed the ordinary phraseology. In truth, 



VERB. 



91 



3. In the present, perfect, and future of the indicative, 
which are called primary tenses^ and throughout the sub- 
junctive mood, the second and third persons dual are the 
same, and end in ov, 

4. But in the imperfect, pluperfect, and the two aorists 
of the indicative, which are called the historical tenses, as 
referring to what is past, and throughout all the optative 
mood, the third person dual ends always in rjv, 

5. In the active voice, the primary tenses always end in 
Gi with the moveable v ; as, -ovacv, -aatv ; -ovoi, -aat ; but 
in the historical tenses the form always terminates in a 
fixed v ; as, ov, av, ecaav, rjaav. 

6. In the passive, the primary and historical tenses are 
distinguished throughout the singular also, and in all the 
third persons plural. The primary tenses have fiat in the 
first person of the singular, the historical always firjv ; and 
where the former have rac, the latter have always to, 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

rvTTTG), " I strike. ^^ 

Present, tvttto) ; First Future, rvfo ; Perfect, rervi^a} 

Moods and Tenses, 





Indie. 


Imper. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


iDfin. 


Part. 


Present, 
Imperfect, 
First Future, 


TV7TT-U, ) 
erUTTT-OV, } 
TVIp-CJ, 


TvirT-e, 


-OtfZL, 
-Olfli, 


-6), 


-etv, 

'EtV, 


-0)V, 
-0)Vf 


First Aorist, 


erv-ip-a, 


TV\p-OV, 


-atfiL, 


-0), 


-at, 


-agy 


Perfect, 
Pluperfect, 
Second Aorist, 


TETV(^-a, > 

hrerxx^-eiv, ) 

ETVir-OV, 


TV7T-£, 


-OtjUC, 
-OtjUt, 


-6), 
-0), 


'Evat, 

-Etv, 


-6c, 
-uv, 


Second Future, 


tdtt-g). 




-OL/LIL, 




-ELV, 


-(bv. 



however, the dual is the same in form with the plural, in the tenses re- 
ferred to ; for the dual itself is only an ancient plural. 

1. This is called conjugating, namely, giving the present, first future, 
and perfect of a verb ; or, in place of the perfect, the first aorist. 



92 VERB. 



Numbers and Persons^ 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present, I strike. 
Sing. rvTrr-w, TVTXT-eig^ rvTrr-et, 

Dual. TVTTT-ETOVf TVTTT-eTOVy 

Plur. TVTTT-ofiev, Ti»7rr-erf, tvizt-ovgi. 

Imperfect, I was striking, 

S. ervTTT-oVf hrunr-eg, etvitT'E, 

D. kTOTrr-ETOVy krvnT-sTrjVf 

P. krvizT-Ofiev i hrvnT'ETEy etv^t-ov. 

First Future, I shall or will strike. 



s. 

D. 
P. 


Tvip-o), Tmp-ELCi rvip'Ei, 

TVlp-ETOV^ TV'ip-ETOVf 
TVlb-OflEV, TV-ip-ETEy TV^-OVGl. 




First Aorist, I {once) struck. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


ETVip-a, irvip-ag, ETVip-Ey 

ETvip-aTOVy hrv^'dTrjVy 
£Tvip-a/i£Vy krvip-aTE, irvilj-av. 




Perfect, I have struck. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


TETV<ji-ay TETV(j>-ag, TETV<^-e, 

TETvlp-aTOV, T£TV(j>-'aTOV, 
T£TV<l>'aflEVy TETV<j)-aT£f TETVi^-dGL, 




Pluperfect, I had struck. 


S. 
B. 
P. 


kT£TV(j>-£LVf £T£TV<j>-£ig, kTETV(j>'£lf 

ETETV^'EiTOV, ET£TV(I>-£It7JV, 
kT£TV(j)-£Cfi£Vj kTETV(j>-£lTEy kTETV^-ElGaV, 




Second Aorist, J {once) struck. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


IrVTT-OV, IrVTT-Ef, ETVn-Ey 

ETVn-ETOVy krUTT'ETTiVf 
ETVTT-OfiEVy ETVTT-ETE, ETVIT'OV. 




Second Future, / shall or mil strike. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


TVTT-Uy TVTT-Eigf TVTT'ELy 

rVTr-ELTOVy TUTT'ElTOVy 
TVTT'OVflEV, rVTT-ElTEy TVIZ-OVGL, 



VERB. 93 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present, he striking. 
S. TVTrr-e, rvnr-eTO), 

D. rVTZT'ETOVy TVTTT-ETCJV, 

P. rvTrT'ETey rvTZT-iruGav. 

First Aorist, strike. 

S. Tvip-oVy TVip-dro, 

D. TV'ip-aTOVj Tvf-droVf 

P. Tv-ilf-arSy Tvifj-drcoGav. 

Perfect, have struck. 

S. reTV(})-£y reTV(j)'£TG)y 

D. r£TV(p-eTOVy rervcp-eTov, 

P. rervip-ere, reTvip-ercjaav. 

Second Aorist, strike. 

S. rVIT'E, TVTT-ETO), 

D. rVTT-ETOVy TVTT-ETOVy 

P. TVlT'ETEy TVTT-ETOGaV. 

OPTATIVE MOOD.i 
Present, may I he striking. 

S. rVTTT'OLllLy TVTTT'OCC, TVTZT'Oi, 

D. TVTZr-OLTOVy TVTrr-OlTTjV, 

p. rVTZT'OiflEVy TVTiT-OlTEy TVTTT-OLEV. 

First Future, may I hereafter strike, 
S. Tmjj'OL/it, Tvip'OLCf rvip-oiy 

D. TVIp-OLTOVy Tvilj'OLrTJVj 

P. TVljj-Ot/LLEVj TV'ip-OlT£, TV'lp-OLEV. 

First Aorist, may I have struck. 
S. TV'ip-ai/ity Tvip-aigy Tvip-at, 

D. TV-lp-atTOVy TV^-aiT7]Vy 

p. Tinp-aL/iEv, TVip-atTEy TV'ip-atEV. 

^OLic First Aorist. 

S. Tvip-Eiay Tvip-EcaCy tvijj-ele, 

D. Tvip-eiaroVy rvip-ecdTTiVy 

p. TUip-Eta/LLEVy Tvip-ELarSy Tvip-Ecav. 

1. We have here given to the optative its genuine meaning, as indi- 
cating a wish. The other meanings, " might,'''' " could,^^ " wouldy'' &€., 
are only attached to it when connected with the particle dvy &c. 



94 VERB. 

Perfect, may I have struck. 

S. TeTV(j>-OL/LLLy TSTV^-OtC, reTV(^-OL, 



D. 
P. 


TeTV<f)-OlTOVy 
TETV^'OLllEVy reTixji-OLTE, 


T£TV(f>'OLTrjV, 
TErV(^-OiEV. 




Second Aorist, may I have been s 


striking. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


TVTT-OlflC, Tvir-oig, 

TVTT-OLTOVf 
TVTT-OljLLEV, TVTT-OtTEj 


TVTT-Ol, 

TVTT-OCTTJVf 

TVTT-OLEV. 




Second Future, may I hereafter strike. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


rV7r-0tfJ,t, TVTT'Otg, 

rvTr-OLTOv, 

TVIT'OtjUEVj TVK-OLTEy 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 
Present, I may strike. 


TVTT'Oly 

tvit-oItt^v, 
TVK-olev, 


S. 
D. 
P. 


TVTTT'Q, TVTTT-riCf 

TVTTT'TITOVy 
TV7TT-(DflEV, TVTTT-TJTEy 


TVTTT'Tl, 

TVKT-TJTOVj 

TVTZT'CdGL. 



First Aorist, I may have struck. 
S. TVifj-Uy rvil}-rigj 7-?;t^-?7, 



D. 


TVIp-r/rOVj TVIJJ-TJTOV, 


P. 


TV-ip-ofZEVj TV-ilj-Tire, rvijj-oGi. 




Perfect, I may have been striking. 


S. 


T£TV(I)-G), TETVC^-Tj^y TETV(j>'7Jy 


D. 


T€TV(})-7jT0Vy VeTV^'TITOV^ 


P. 


TETVCp-CJ/LLEV, TerV(p-rjTEy T£TV(j)-0)Gl, 




Second Aorist, I may have struck. 


S. 


TVTT'Dy rvK-rj^y rvTT-riy 


D. 


TVTT-r)TOVy TVTT-TiTOVy 


P. 


TVTT'CJJUeVy TV7T'7]T£y TVTT-COaU 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, TvirT'ELVy to strike. 
First Future, rmp-ELv, to be going to strike. 
First Aorist, rvip-at, to have struck. 
Perfect, T£TV(l>-evat, to have been striking. 
Second Aorist, tvtt-eIv^ to have struck. 
Second Future, tvk-elv, to be going to strike. 



VERB. 



95 



PARTICIPLES. 

N. T'OTTT-UVf TVTTT'OVGa^ TVTTT'OVi 

G. TVTrr-ovTog, rvnT'OVGrjg, rvTrT-ovrogj &c. 

First Future, going to strike. 
N. Tvip-uv, Tvip-ovaa, rvip-ov, 

G. TV-ip-OVTO^, rV^-OVGTjC, TVlp-OVTOg. 

First Aorist, having struck. 

N. rvip-ag, rvip-aGa, Tvip-av, 

G. TV-ip-avTog, rvip-darjg^ rvip-avTOC' 

Perfect, who has been striking. 

N. TETV(j>-6)g, T£TV<p-Viay TETVCp-OCf 

G. T£rv(j>'6Tog, rervip-vtagy rerv^-OTog. 

Second Aorist, having struck, 

N. TVTT-6v, rVTT-OVGay TV7T-6Vj 

G. TVTT'OVTOg, TVTZ-OVGTjg, TVTT-SvTOg. 

Second Future, going to strike. 

N. rVTT-WV, TVTZ-OVGa, TVTT-OVV, 

G. TVTZ-OVVTOg, TVn-OVGTjg, TVTT-OVVTOg. 





PASSIVE VOICE 








The Moods and Tenses. 






Indie. 


Imper. 


Op tat. 


Subj. 


Infill. 


Fart 


Present, 
Imperfect, 


rVTTTOfiaif } 

krvTTTOfirjv, S 


TVTZT-OVf 


-otflTIV, 


-ojLLaty 


-EGdaij 


-O/lEVOg, 


Perfect, 
Pluperfect, 


TETVflfiaL, ) 
eTETVfl/jLTjV, ) 


TETV-lpOf 


-fifZEVog, 
eIt/v, 


-fifiEvog, 


-(^dai, 


-fiuivog, 


1st Aorist, 


ETIXpdTjVy 


TVCp-dTJTi, 


-dEirjVy 


-du, 


'dyvat, 


-dEig, 


1st Future, 


TvcpOyG-ofiatj 




-OtflTJV, 




-EGdat, 


-OfiEVOgj 


2d Aorist, 


ETVTTTJVy 


TV7T-7j6lf 


-eItjv, 


-g), 


-rival, 


-£tr, 


2d Future, 


TVTTIJG-OfiaCy 




-QLfirjV, 




-EGdai, 


-o(ievog, 


3d Future, 


TETVIp-Oliaiy 




-OLflT/Vy 




-EGdac, 


-ofiEvog. 



96 VERB. 



Numbers and Persons, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present, I am struck. 

S. rvTrr-Ofiaiy TV7rT-ei,^ TvirT-erat, 

D. TVTTT-ofiedoVy rvnT-eadoVj TVTrr-eGdov, 

P. TVirr-o/LLeda, rvirr-eade^ rvnT-ovTac. 

Imperfect, I was in the act of being struck. 

S. kTVirT-SfLTJV, krVTTT-OVy kTVTTT-eTOy 

D. kTVTTT-SjUEdoVy eTVTTT-eadov, ervTTT'iGdyv, 

P. krvTTT'SjLLEdaf ervTrT-eade^ etvitT'Ovto. 

Perfect, / have oeen struck. 

S. Tervfi-fiai, reTvijj-aCy rerviTT-aiy 

D. rerv/LL-fiedoVj TeTV(j>-6oVf rervcp-doVf 

P. TETVfL-fieda, reTV(j)-dey Tervfi-jaivoiy elai. 

Pluperfect, / had heen struck. 

S. krervii-fJirjVy kTervifj-o, ereTVTTT-Oy 

D. kTerv/Li'fxedoVy erervd-doVj ETeTix^-drjVy 

P. ETETV/X-ILLEda, ETETV(I)-6e, TeTV/l'lJ,EVOC Tjoav^ 

First Aorist, I was struck. 

S. ETVcji-drjVj ETv^-Brj^y ETv^-drjy 

D. ETVCji-drjTov, eTV<\>-drjr7jVf 

P. etv^-Otjijlev, eTV<j)'67jTef kTV(l)-6rjGav, 

First Future, I shall he struck. 

S. TV(l)-6'^(yo/Liaty TVip-OrjOECy rvift-BrjGETat., 

D. Tvip-drjao/LLEdoVy Tvip-Or/GEGdoVf TV(p-6l}(7e(760V, 

p. TV(p-6r]o6fjiEda, Tv^-OrjaEadEy rvc^-drjGovrai, 

Second Aorist, I was struck. 
S. kTviT-riVy krvTr-Tjc, ervTT-Ty, 

D. ETVTZ-TJTOVy ETVK-TJTTJV , 

p. ETVIT-TJllEVy ETVn-rjTEy ETVTT-TJGaV, 

Second Future, I shall he struck. 

S. Tvn-yaofiaty run-yaEt, rvTZ-rjOErai, 

D. TVTC-TfaOflEdoV, TVTT-TlOEadoVy TVK-rjGEaOoVy 

p. TVir-TjGOfiEday Tviz-rjoEaBEy rvrr-TjaovTaL. 

1 . We have given in this, and the other second persons, the Attic ter- 
mination in Ety as more correct than the common termination in iy. 



VERB. 97 



Third Future, I shall continue to he struck. 

S. TETVip-o/Ltac, rervilj-eL, Terv'tp-erac, 

D. TSTvip-o/iedov, TETVip-eadov, Tervip-eadov, 

P. rerv-ip-ofjLeQa, TeTv-ip-eode, rerv'ilj-ovTai. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present, he struck. 

S. TVTTT-ov, rvTrr-EGdo), 

D. TVTiT-eadov, rvTrr-eadcov, 

P. rvTZT-eade, Tvnr-Eadoaav. 

Perfect, have heen struck, 

S. T£Tvip-o, Tervcp-Oco, 

D. Terv^-dov, T£Tv<p-6i^v, 

P. TCTVcp-de, TeTV(j)-6(0Gav. 

First Aorist, he struck. 

S. TXXp-drjTiy TV(l>-drjTO, 

D. TV(p-dr)TOVy TV(j>-d?JTC)V, 

p. rv(j)-6rjTSj TV(l>-dr]TO)aav. 

Second Aorist, be struck. 

S. TVTT-TjdLy TVTT'TJTO), 

D. TVTT-TJTOVj TV7r-7]T0)V, 

P. TVTT'TJTE, TVTT-TJTCOaaV. 



OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present, may I he in the act of heing struck. 

S. TVTTT-OlflTjVy rV7TT-0L0, TVTZT-OLTO^ 

D. TVTrr-OLjLLEdoVj TVTTT'OiadoV, TVTVr-OiGdrjVj 

p. TVKT-OLfjLEda, TVTTT-OtodE, TVTTT-OCVTO, 

Perfect, may I have been struck. 

S. TETVfl-fXEVOC ECTJVy ELlJCi ELTfy 

D. TETVfl-fXEVG), EiTJTOVy elrjTTjV^ 

P. rETVjji-(lEVOL ELIJ/LLEV, £i7]T£y ECTjaaV. 

First Aorist, may I have been struck. 



S. TV(j>'6eLJjVj 


TV(p-dEi7)g, 


rv(l>-6Ei7jt 


D. 


rv<p-6£iriT0Vy 


TV(p-BELriT7IVy 


P. Tv^'BeirjiieVy 


rv<^-detrirEy 


TV(^'deL7j(jav. 



98 VERB. 



First Future, may I he struck hereafter. 

S. TV(f>-d7]aQifir]v^ TV(j>-6fjaoiOy Tvcp-BriGOiTOy 

D. TV(f)-d7](jolfi£6oVy TV(})-6//ooL(jdoVj rv^-dt]Goladr)v, 

P. TV(p-6T]uoi[i£day Tvip-d/jootade, TV(p-drjaoLVTO. 

Second Aorist, may I have been struck. 

S. TV7T-et7]v, Tvir-eiyg, rvTr-ecrj^ 

D. Tvn-eirjTov, Tvn-etrjTrjv, 

P. TVIT-etTJIIEV, TVTT-ELTJTej TV7T-€L)](jaV, 

Second Future, may I be struck hereafter. 

S. rv7r-rjaoi/LL7]v, rvTz-rjaoio, rv7r-7JGOLro, 

D. TVir-rjooifiedov, Tvir-rjaoLGdoVy rvTr-rjGOLGdijv, 

P. Tvn-r)Goi[X£day Tvn-TJGOCGdey tvtt-tjgolvto. 

Third Future, may I continue to be struck hereafter. 

S. rervip-OLfnjVj TeTvifj-oLo, reTvip-oLTO, 

D. TeTvip-OLjueOoVf rervip-OLGdov, reTvip-olGdrfv, 

P. TeTvijj-otfxeday reTV^-oiGde, rerv-ip-OLvro. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present, I may be struck. 

S. TVTT-TOfJ-atf TVTT-Tr)^ TVITT-TJTaCy 

D. TVTT-TLdfiedoV, TVTZ-TrjGdoV, TVTTT-T/GdoV, 

P. TVTZ-TUfieda^ TVTi-TTJGde, TVTTT-UVTaC. 

Perfect, I may have been struck. 

S. TeTVjLL-fievoc w, ^r, ^, 

D. TErvfi-fiEvo)^ ^roVf tjtov, 

P. rerufL-iLLEvoc ibfiEV, TjTe, ggu 

First Aorist, 1 may have been struck. 
S. TV(j)-6C)y Tv(l>-67jgy rvcp-Orff 

D. TV(p-6rJT0V, Tvip-dfJTOV, 

p. TV(l)-6cJ/jLEV, TV(j)-6^Tey 7V(^-dC)GL. 

Second Aorist, / may have been struck. 

S. TVTT-CJf rVTT-TJC, TVTT-yf 

D. rVTZ-fJTOVy TVK-rJTOVy 

p. TVTT-CJfieVy TVn-TJTEy TVTZ-CdGL, 



VERB. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



99 



Present, rvirT-eadai, to he struck. 

Perfect, rervip-Bat^ to have been struck. 

First Aorist, Tvcp-dfjvac, to have been struck. 

First Future, TVip-drjaeGdai, to be going to be struck. 

Second x\orist, TVTz-ijvai, to have been struck. 

Second Future, rvK-TjoeoOai, to be going to be struck. 

Third Future, Terv-ilj-eGdat, to be going to be continually struck. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present, being struck. 

N. TVTTT-OjLLeVOCf TVTTT-OfZSVlJf TVITT-S/LtEVOV, 

G. TVTTT-ofievov, TVTTT-ofisvyg, TVTrr-ofxivov. 

Perfect, having been struck. 

"N. T€TVjU-fl€V0^y r£TVfl-/LL£V7Jy TeTVfl-fieVOV, 

G. T€Tv/i-fj,evoVj reTVfL-fievTjg, rervfi-fievov. 

First Aorist, having been struck. 

N. TVcp-deLC, TVip-delaa, rv^-Bev, 

G. rv<p-devTog, Tvo-detGTjc, rvcp-devTOC. 

First Future, going to be struck. 

N. TV(p-67]<j6jLLevogj Tv<^-6T]Goiievr]j rv^-drjaofievoVy 

G. TV(l>-67]GoiJ,evoVj rvcp-dr^aofievTjgy TV^-drjGOiiivov. 

Second Aorist, having been struck. 

N. rvn-eig, rvTr-ecGaf rv7r-ev, 

G. TVTz-evTog, rvir-eiGrig, rvir-evrog. 

Second Future, going to be struck. 

N. rVTT-TjGOfJLEVOQy TV7T'7jG0fX£V1]f TVir-T/GO/LLeVOV, 

G. TVTT-TjGOHeVOV, TV7r-7]G0/LLeV7]C, TVK-TJGOlieVOV. 

Third Future, going to be continually struck. 

N. TerVlp-OfieVOC) T£TV1p-0fieV7Jy TETVlp-OflEVOVy 

G, T£TVrp'OfJ,£VOV, TETVIp-OfzivT/^y TETVyp-OflEVOV. 



100 



VERB. 



MIDDLE VOICE. 



The Moods and Tenses, 





Indie. 


Imper. 


Optat 


Subj. 


Infin- 


Part. 


Present, 
Imperfect, 


TVTTT-OfiaLy ) 
erVTTT-O/LLTJV, ) 


TVTTT-OV, 


-oi(jLr)v, 


-cjjuai, 


-eadacy 


-ofievogy 


Perfect, 


reriiTT-a, > 

£TErV7T-€LV, ) 


, 








^ 


Pluperfect, 


TSTV7T-e, 


-OLfXC, 


-6), 


-evatj 


-Wf, 


1st Future, 


Tvip-ojuaCj 




-0LILL7]V, 




-sGdaty 


-ofievogy 


1st Aorist, 


ETVlp-dfiTJV, 


Tvip-at, 


-atjLLyVy 


-ojuai, 


-aGdat, 


-a/Li£vogy 


2d Aorist, 


krvn-ofir/v, 


TVTZ-OV, 


-OtjU7]Vy 


-(Dfiai, 


-£(jdatf 


-o/aevocy 


2d Future, 


TVTT-OV/LLaiy 




-0lfI7]V, 




-eladacy 


'OVjuevog. 



Numbers and Persons, 

The only tenses of the middle voice that differ from 

those of the active and passive of verbs in o) are the first 

aorists of the indicative, imperative, and optative, and the 

second future of the indicative. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 
First Aorist, I struck myself. 



S. krv-ip-dfiTjVy 
D. krvip-d/xedov, 
P. krvip-dfieday 



krvip-Oy 

M-ip-acrdov, 

ETv-ip-acide, 



ervip-arOy 

ETvip-dadriv, 

krv'ip-avTO, 



Second Future, I shall or will strike myself. 



S. rvTr-ovfiaiy 
D. ruTT-ovfiedoVj 
P. TV7r-ov/j,6da, 



TVTT-ety 

rvir-elodoVy 
TVK'Eladey 



rvTr-etraCy 

TVTT-elaBoVy 

TVTT-ovvrat. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

First Aorist, strike thyself 
S. rvip-ac, rvil)-dG6(i)y 



D. rvip-aodov, 
P. Tvip-aaOsy 



TVip-dadcoVy 
Tvip-dGdcjcrav. 



OPTATIVE MOOD. 
First Aorist, may I have been struck. 
S. TV^p-aifiriVy rmp-aiOy Tvip-airOy 



D. Tvip-alfiedoVy 
P. Tv-^-aiiieday 



rmfj-aco, 
Tv^-aL(jdoVy 



TVTp-atadjjVy 

TV'ip-aLVTO. 



VERB. 101 

PARTICIPLES. 

First Aorist, having struck myself. 

N. rmp-d/LLevoc, TVijj-afLevT}, rvip-afievov, 

G. TV^-afj,£vov, TV-ip-afxevTjc, rvilj-afiEvov. 

First Future, being about to strike myself, 

N. Tvip-ofzevog, rvip'OftevTj, TVip-ofzevov, 

G. Tvip-ofLivoVf rv\lj-ofj,ev7]gy TyTp-ofzevov. 

Second Future, being about to strike myself. 

N. TVTT-ovfievog, TVTr-ovfiev?], rvir-ovfisvov, 

G. Tvii'OVfievoVj rv7T-ov/ii£V7]g, rvn-ovfLevov. 

The Greek verb, of the class in 6), will now be consid- 
ered under the following heads : 

1. Augment. 

2. Formation of the Tenses. 

3. Force of the Tenses. 

4. Middle Voice. 

5. Force of the Moods. 

1. AUGMENT. 

1. The Augments are two in number, the Syllabic and 
Temporal. 

2. The syllabic augment belongs to verbs that begin 
with a consonant, and is so called because it adds a sylla- 
ble to the verb. 

3. The temporal augment belongs to verbs that begin 
with a vowel, and is so called because it increases the time 
or quantity of the initial vowel. 

4. Three of the tenses have an augment, which is con- 
tinued through all the moods, viz., the Perfect, Pluperfect, 
and Third Future, or Paulo-post-futurum. 

5. Three receive an augment in the indicative only, viz., 
the Imperfect and the two Aorists. 

6. Three receive no augment, viz., the Present and the 
First and Second Futures, 

12 



102 RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 

7. The true use of the augment is to mark an action 
which is either completely or partially past. Hence it will 
appear why the present and the first and second futures 
have no augment ; why the imperfect and two aorists have 
an augment only in the indicative ; and why the perfect^ 
pluperfect, and third future, all three of which refer to a con- 
tinued action, have an augment continued throughout all the 
moods of the verb. 

8. The augment originally was the same in the case of 
all verbs, namely, an e was prefixed, whether the verb be- 
gan with a vowel or a consonant. Traces of this old aug- 
ment are found in the early Ionic poets, and occasionally 
in Ionic prose ; as, kdcpOrj for rj(p67] ; edvdave for Q]vdave. 

9. Afterward the usage was thus determined, that e 
was only prefixed to verbs beginning with a consonant ; 
whereas, in others, it coalesced with the initial vowel, and 
became a long vowel or diphthong. Thus, tvtttg) has in 
the imperfect e-rvnrov, but ayo) has fiyov (from e-ayov), 
and olfcc^o) has Syfa^ov (from s-otia^ov), 

10. The Attics retained this old augment in the follow- 
ing cases : 1 . In such words as sa^a, edyrjv, eaycog, from 
ayo), " to break ;" to distinguish them from fj^a, rjxa, &c., 
from dy(»), '' I carry, '^^ 2. In edXcdica, eaAco; eotica, eoXna, 
eopya, in which the characteristic of the perfect middle (o^ 
and o) could not be effaced. 3. In verbs which begin with 
a vowel not capable of being lengthened ; as, ecoOovv, from 
(hOEG) ; EGJOfxac, from the same ; eojvovfirjv, from (bveofjtaL ; 
Eovpovv, from ovpeo), 

RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 

1. The augment of the imperfect and the two aorists, in 
verbs beginning with a consonant, is formed by merely 
prefixing e ; as, ervnrov, ervipa, ervirov. If, however, the 
verb begin with p, the p is doubled after the augment ; as, 
EppiTTTov^ from pinro) ; eppeov, from pecj. 



RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 103 

2. The augment of the perfect is formed by repeating the 
initial consonant of the verb, and annexing to it an e ; as, 
TETVcpa^ rervira ; XeXoiira^ &c. 

3. This repetition of the initial consonant is called by 
the grammarians Reduplication (SmXaacaaiiog), and is sub- 
ject to the following rules : 

(A.) If the verb begins with an aspirated consonant, 
then in the reduplication the corresponding smooth 
or lenis is put ; as, (jytXeo), perfect 7T£(l)iX7jK,a ; %pv- 
ooG), perfect nexpvoGyKa. 

(B.) If the verb begins with p, the perfect does not 
take the reduplication, but the p is doubled and e 
prefixed ; as, pinrG), perfect eppccpa. 

(C) If the verb begin with a double consonant, ^, f, 
if), or with two consonants, the latter of which is 
not a liquid, the perfect does not receive the redu- 
plication, but only the augment e ; as, ^rjrso), per- 
fect £^rjr7]fia ; ^vpeo), perfect e^vprjfca ; ipdXXo), 
perfect eipaXna ; ojrsLpo), perfect eanapfca ; oreX- 
?iO), perfect earaXrca. 

To this rule, however, there are the following 
exceptions : 1. The syncopated forms which be- 
gin with TTT ; as, Trerrra^at (for TTsnsrafiac) ; and 
also some other verbs in ttt ; as, rrrepoG), enTepG)- 
Ka ; TTTfjaaG), enrrixci" 2. The verb Kraofiat, of 
which the perfect fcsfCTTj^ac is more used by the 
Attics, and enrriiiai by the lonians and older At- 
tics. 

(D.) If the verb begins with a mute and liquid, the 
reduplication appears in some cases, but in others 
is omitted. Mvdd) always makes fjiefjivrjfxac ; and 
verbs whose second initial consonant is p receive 
the reduplication regularly ; as, dpefio), perfect ds- 
SpofirjKa ; d^pavo), perfect redpavna ; rpecpG), per- 
fect rerpocpa. On the other hand, it is generally 



104 RULES FOR THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 

wanting in verbs whose second initial consonant 

is A ; as, jXvtttg), perfect eyXvcpa. 

4. The augment of the pluperfect is formed by prefixing 
e to the reduplication of the perfect ; as, reTvcjya, pluperfect 
eTeTV(j)eLV. 

5. The third future passive, being formed from the per- 
fect of the same voice, has, like that tense, the reduplica- 
tion ; as, Tsrvijjofjiat, 

RULES FOR THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 

1. By the contraction of the augment e with the initial 
vowel of the verb, the following results are obtained : 



a 


becomes 


^; 


as, 


dicovcjy 


imp. 


TJICOVOV. 


e 


a 


V'y 


u 


eyecpo), 


(( 


TJyetpov. 


I 


u 


I; 


cc 


t/cdvG), 


(( 


iKavov. 





u 


6); 


t£ 


OVOfld^G), 


a 


(hvoiia^ov. 


V 


u 


v; 


u 


v6pt^(»), 


(( 


vdpc^ov. 


at 


u 


t?; 


a 


aipG), 


(C 


Xipov. 


av 


ii 


7/v; 


a 


av^dvG), 


(( 


Tjv^avov, 


ev 


u 


7jv; 


a 


evxoiiai, 


(t 


rjvxofiTjV, 


OL 


<c 


v; 


a 


oltci^G), 


u 


&fa^ov. 



2. In some verbs, however, e becomes et ; as, e^o), el" 
Xov ; eao), elC)v ; €/l6), elXov, <fec. 

3. When a verb or verbal form begins with eo, the sec- 
ond vowel takes the augment ; as, eoprd^cj, ecopra^ov. So, 
also, in the pluperfects formed from the three perfects eot- 
ica, eoXTTtt, and eopya, namely, eG)K£LV, eojXneiv, and ewp" 
yecv. 

4. Of vowels which are already long in themselves, d 
becomes rj^ as already mentioned ; but the others, rj, g), I, 
V, are wholly incapable of being augmented ; as, firrdofiai, 
imperfect 7jrr6iir]v^ perfect 7]TT7jiiaL, pluperfect rjTTTjfiTjv. 



REMARKS ON THE TWO AUGMENTS. 105 

REMARKS ON THE TWO AUGMENTS. 
1. Syllabic, 

1. The Attics prefix the temporal instead of the syllabic 
augment to (iovXoiiai, dvvafiac, and fieXXo) ; as, TjdovXofirjv, 
rj6vvdiJ.7jv, 7]f.ieXXov. Here a form edovXoiiat, sdyvaiiac, 
EfiiXXo), is assmned, like OeXcj and sOeXo). 

2. The initial augment in the pluperfect is sometimes 
omitted by the Attics ; as, ttsttovOscv for ensnovdeLv ; ye- 
yevriiir]v for eyeyevrjfirjv. 

3. In verbs beginning with X and fi, the lonians, Attics, 
and others are accustomed to put sc for Xe or fis ; as, Xafx- 
6dvG), perfect etXrjclya, for XeXrj(j)a ; XayxdvQ, perfect et- 
Xrjxa. 

4. In Homer and Hesiod the second aorists often receive 
a reduplication ; as, fce/cafiov for etcafiov, from Kd[iVG) ; ire- 
TTidov for ettlOov, from ueidG), Slc. 

5. The augment of the historical tenses is very often 
omitted in poetry by writers not Attic ; as, j3dXe for edaXe ; 
I3rj for edrj ; ysvovro for eyevovro, &c. 

2. Temporal, 

1. Many verbs beginning with a diphthong neglect the 
augment. Those in ov never take it ; as, ovrd^co, ovra- 
^ov. Those in ec also have no augment ; as, etfco), elicov, 
el^a, with the single exception of eind^o), which is now 
and then augmented by the Attics ; as, ei/cd^G), ehaaa, 
slfiaGfjiaL, Attic ^naaa, xfnaoiiat. Verbs in ev have the aug- 
ment TjV with the Attics, though the usage is variable. 
Thus we have rjvxofjirjv and evxo{J''i]v ; evpedrjv, and very 
rarely rjvpeOrjv. 

2. The verbs (hSeo), (hveofiac, and ovpeo), not being sus- 
ceptible of the temporal augment, take e before their initial 
vowel or diphthong. In other words, they retain the early 
augment ; as, G)de(j), eojdovv ; (hveoiiac, eo^vovfjLrjv ; ovpecj, 
eovpovv. 

3. As the syllabic augment in PovXofiat, Svvafiai, and 
fxeXXo), is increased by the temporal, in the same manner 
the temporal augment in the verb opdo) is increased by the 
syllabic ; as, opdo)^ imperfect e^pcov. 



106 



AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS* 



ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 

1. Verbs beginning with a vowel, not being able to take 
a reduplication like that in verbs with the syllabic aug- 
ment, have in the perfect, occasionally, what is called the 
Attic Reduplication. 

2. The Attic reduplication is when the first two letters 
of the root are repeated before the temporal augment, the 
initial vowel remaining unchanged. Thus : 



dyetpoj, 


TJyepfca, 


Att. Red. 


dyrjyep/ca 


ifjiso), 


TJfisica, 


<c 


eiiTifieiia. 


bXXvfjic, 


wAe/ca, 


6i 


oXcjXeica, 


epXoiiat, 


TJXvda, 


(C 


eXrjXvda, 


5^6), 


G)6a, 


C( 


b6G)da. 



3. The pluperfect sometimes prefixes to this reduplica- 
tion a new temporal augment ; most commonly in atcqaoay 

TJKTjfCOetV. 

4. A similar reduplication is formed in some verbs in the 
second aorist, only that here the temporal augment comes 
first ; as, ijpapov, cjpopov, TJyayov. 

AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

1 . When the verb is compounded with a preposition, the 
augment comes between the preposition and the verb ; as, 
TTpoatpepd), npoaecpepov, 

2. Verbs compounded with other words have the aug- 
ment usually at the beginning ; as, fieXonoieG), efxeXonotovv ; 
TrXrjiijjieXsfjd, neTTXrjfjifjieXrjtca. 

3. Verbs compounded with ev and 6vg take the temporal 
augment in the middle when these verbs commence with 
a vowel that cannot be changed ; as, evepyereo), evrjpye' 
row ; dvaapeoreG), 6var]peoT0vv. 

4. But when these particles are joined to verbs com- 
mencing with an immutable vowel or a consonant, they 



REMARKS ON THE AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 107 

take the augment at the beginning ; as, dvGG)7TSG), edvoG)- 
7T0VV ; dvGTVxs^o), kdvorvx^fycL ; £vdofCLfj,eG), rjvdotCL[jiOVV, 
In compounds with ev, however, the augment in such ca- 
ses is commonly omitted ; as, evcoxsofiai,, evG)xov[irjv, &c. 

REMARKS ON THE AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

1. The prepositions, excepting nepc, lose their final 
vowel before the syllabic augment ; as, dnedodtce, aiKpedaX- 
Xev ; but TTepiedrjica, not nepedrjfca. In the case of npo, 
however, the o is usually contracted with e ; as, TTpovdrj, 
npovOTjua, &;c. 

2. The prepositions avv and ev, whose final consonant 
is changed by the laws of euphony into y. A, (jl, p, a, re- 
sume- V before the syllabic augment ; as, tyyiyvoiiai, eve- 
yiyvoiirjv ; GvX?.eyG), avveXeyov ; efi[jisvo), evefisvov, &c. 

3. Strictly speaking, all those verbs have the augment 
at the beginning which are not so much themselves com- 
pounded with another verb as derived from a compound 
word. Thus, SsLvonadeG), edscvoTTdOovv, from deLvonaOrjg ; 
oifcoSojjiSG), (hfcoSofiovv, from oltcoSofjiog, &c. 

4. Hence some verbs, apparently compounded with prep- 
ositions, take the augment at the beginning ; as, evavrcov- 
fiat, rjvavTCOVfjbrjV, from evavrcog. So, also, dvTL6ojico, rjV' 
TifjoXovv, 

5. Exceptions, however, to the rules just mentioned, are 
of no unfrequent occurrence, especially among the Attics, 
with whom we find the following forms : e^efcXrjaiaaav, 
evenojjjita^ov, npoecprjTevaa, emrerrjSevfca, &c., although in 
all these verbs no simple form exists, but they are derived 
at once from enKXriaia^ eyfccofiiov, rrpo&fjrrjg, smrrjSrjg, 

6. Some compound verbs take a double augment, name- 
ly, one before and one after the preposition ; as, dvopOocj, 
7jVG)p6ovv, £7TrjVG)p6G)Tac ; evoxXsG), rjvG)x^ovv ; dvexoo, rjv- 
etXOjiTjv ; TTapOLveG), e7Tap(^vrjasv, &c. Still more irregular 
are the following : 6sdc{}T7]fca, e^eSeSt'qTrjTo, from dcacraG) ; 
6e6LG)fcr]fca, edcGjKrjaa, from Siotfceo) ; and, in later writers, 
TjVTjXojaa, from dvaXtanG)^ and dedLTjKOvrjKa, from dtaKOveo)^ 



108 FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 

2. FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 

The Imperfect 

is formed from the present by changing the termination 6) 
into ov, and prefixing the augment ; as, tvtttg), ervnrov ; 
Xeyo), eXejov ; ayw, rp/ov. 

The First Future 

is formed from the present by changing the last syllable in 
the 

First conjugation into i/jw ; as, tvtttg), tvi/j6) ; 
Second conjugation " ^(o ; " /leyo), Xe^G) ; 
Third conjugation '' oo) ; " tlg), rtao) ; 

and in the fourth conjugation by circumflexing the last 
syllable, and shortening the penult ; as, ipaXXo), ij)dX(x), 

Verbs in ao) and £6) generally change a and e into ?;, and 
verbs in ow change o into co ; as, rtfidG), rifirjao) ; (j)cXeG), 
(pcXrjGG) ; drjXoo), d7]XG)aG). 

Four verbs, commencing v^ith a smooth syllable, change 
that smooth into an aspirate in the future ; as. 






rpsxo), '&pE^G), 



1 



The First Aorist 



is formed from the first future by prefixing the augment and 
changing o) into a ; as, rvipo), srvipa. 

1. These apparent anomalies admit of a very easy explanation. The 
old form of exo) was exo), which was changed to exiOj because two suc- 
cessive syllables cannot well have each an aspiration. But in the future 
the aspirate reappears, in consequence of the x being removed, in order 
to make way for the termination of the future, ^w. In like manner, the 
old presents of rp^(/)w. rpexf^-, and tv^g) were respectively d^pedo, 'O-p^x^i 
and ^v(l)cjf changed to Tpe(l)0), &c., in order that two successive syllables 
might not each begin with an aspirate ; while in the future the first as- 
pirate reappears, the latter having been changed. 



a 


into 


V 


at 


a 


V 


e 


a 


EL 


I 


a 


^; 


V 


a 


V 



'ipaXCd, 


siprjXa. 


(pdVGJ, 


£(prjva. 


or e?iG), 


eoTEiXa 


UplvCi), 


EKplva. 


d^ivvo), 


TJfivva, 



FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 109 

In verbs of the fourth conjugation, namely, those ending 
in Xg), fiG), VG), pG), the short vov^el of the penult is again 
made long by changing 

as, ipdXXo), 
" (pacvG), 
" gteXXo), 

" KptVG), 

" dfivvod, 

But verbs in -paivoj and -tatvG) have only a long a in the 
penult of the first aorist, Avithout changing it into tj ; as, 
TTSpacvct), UEpdvu), ETCEpdva ; maivo), ncdvu), Entdva. 

Later writers form also many others v^ith long a, where, 
according to the general rule, the 7] should be employed ; 
as, Earjfjidva, from arjfiaLVG) ; EKoCXdva, from noiXaivo), 

Some verbs, which have a in the future, lose it in the 
first aorist ; as, %€W, ^et'crw, EXEva ; gevg), gevgg), EGEva ; 
KaiG), fcavGO), EfCTja. 

The Perfect 

is formed from the first future by prefixing the continued 
augment, and changing, in the 

First conjugation, ipo) into (pa ; as, tv^Ijcj, rsrvcpa. 

Second conjugation, ^g) " x^ ? " Ae^6), XeXexO" 

Third conjugation, gg) " tea ; " tlgg), rErma. 

Fourth conjugation, w '' na ; " ipaX(x), EijjaXica, 

Dissyllables in -Xg) and -pcj change the e of the first fu- 
ture into a ; as, gteXXg), gteXCo^ EGraXfca ; GiTEcpG), GiTEpoJ, 
EG-apna. But polysyllables, on the contrary, retain the e ; 
as, dyye/lAw, dyyEXih^ TJyyEXica. 

Verbs in -lvg), -vvg), and -elvg) rejector before fc, and retain 
the short vowel of the future ; as, fcptvG), fcplvG), tcEfcpiKa ; 
7T?.vvG), ttXvvg), TTEirXvua ; but those in elvg) change the e of 
the future into d ; as, telvg), tevgj, rirdKa. 

K 



110 



FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 



Verbs in -aivco change v before n into y ; as, (paivcd, (pa- 
VG), TTscpayKa ; fjLtatvcjj, fiLavoj, fisfj^tayKa, 

In some verbs the s is changed into o ; as, rpe^w, dpi- 
x[)G), rerpocpa ; kXetttg), KXeipo), KsicXocpa ; Aeyo), Aefo), Ae- 
Ao%a, &c., and even before the consonants ; as, ttsiittg), 
TreiiipG), Trenoficpa. 

The Pluperfect 

is formed from the perfect by prefixing e to the continued 
augment, if there be a reduplication, and changing the ter- 
mination a into ecv ; as, rervcpa, erervcpeiv. 

The Second Aorist 
is formed from the present by prefixing the augment, short- 
ening the penult, and changing co into ov ; as, rvTrro), erv- 
TTOV ; XecTTG), eXcTTOV ; fcdfivG), s/cdfiov. 

The penult of the present is shortened for this purpose 
by the following changes : 



Vowels. 






at into 


a; as. 


nratpo), eTtrdpov, 


7] 


a; " 


XrjOo), eXdBov. 


e " 


a; " 


Tpe7T(0, erpdrrov. 


ev " 


V', " 


^evyw, e(f)vyov. 


6fc < ^^ 


r; " 


XeiTTG), eXinov. 


€ or c, in verbs ending in Ao), /id), 


Consonants, 




XX 


into A ; 


as, ISdXXo), e6dXov. 




(tt; 


" TvnTG), ervnov. 


7TT 


" ]/3; 


" KpVTTTG), EfCpvdoV, 




(0; 


" paTTTG), eppd(pov. 


Oa, TT, 


u ^. 


" rdaao), erdyov. 


K 




" (ppd^o), ecbpddov, 
" apd^G), eicpdyov. 


X 


U y. 


" tjfxvx^i ^(yfJ'Vyov, 



REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. Ill 

Verbs in -^o) and -ogg) of the second conjugation form 
the second aorist in yov ; as, fcpd^o), eapdyov ; TTpdaao), 
enpdyov ; but those of the third conjugation form it in dov ; 
as, (jypd^o), ecjypddov. 

The verb ttXtiggo) makes eirXrjyov in the second aorist ; 
but the a appears in the compounds that signify " to fright- 
en ;" as, fcareirXayov, e^eirXayov. 

The Second Future 
is formed from the second aorist by dropping the aug- 
ment, and changing ov into circumflexed w ; as, ervnov, 

rVTTG). 

The Attic Future 
is formed by throwing out a in -dao), -£(76), -tao), -oao), of 
the future, and then contracting the vow^els thus brought 
into contact ; as, e^eXcb for e^eXdoG) ; eXC) for eXdoo) ; Sea- 
Cfcedco for diaGneddao) ; fcofito) for nofiiaG) ; ofjioviiat for 
dfioaoiiai ; fiaxelaOai for fiaxsGeodac, Slc, 

REMARKS ON THE FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE 
TENSES. 

1. Future. 

1. The old future of all verbs ended originally in eacj, 
and v^e still find oXeao) from oXg), and dpeoo) from dpG>. 

2. This primitive form in -ecrct) was changed by the iEo- 
lians into og) by dropping the e ; as, apw, apcro) ; opw, 6p- 
OG) ; Kvpcs), fcvpGG), The lonians, on the other hand, changed 
the old form into eo) by rejecting a ; as, oXso), dpeoj, Kvpeco, 
&c., while the Attics contracted this form into w ; as, jLtfi-i^w, 
fxevco ; <7rePu/l6), orsXcj, &c. 

3. Thus, from the original form of the future in eacj, 
which remained only in some verbs, two new forms arose, 
one in oo), and the other in eo), contracted w. 

4. The future in oj was chiefly used in verbs whose 
characteristic was X, p,, v, p, that is, which ended in Xg), 
fio), VG), pw ; the future in cg) was, with a few exceptions, 
employed in the rest. 



112 REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 

5. This future in og) is generally denominated the first 
future, and the future in w is also a first future in verbs 
which end in Aw, fio), vg), and pco, but in other verbs it is 
called the second future. 

6. In strictness, therefore, the second future is only a 
dialect variation from the first, and does not exist at all in 
verbs ending in Xo), jjlo), vo), and po). 

7. In changing the termination -sao) into ao), the conso- 
nants immediately preceding it are also changed according 
to the ordinary rules of euphony. Thus : 

(A.) The consonants d, 0, r, f, are omitted before a, 
and the remaining consonants, tt, j3, (f), ic, y, x^ 
are united with the a that follows into the double 
consonants ip and f ; as, fipvrcTG), fcpvrrreGG), Kpv- 
"ipG) ; dyo), ay EGG), d^o) ; uXefCG), TrXetcsaG), 7t?J^G). 

(B.) Double y makes yf ; as, Xcyyo), Xcyyeoo), Xty- 

(C.) If V precede r5, 0, r, ^, it is thrown out ; but, in 
order that the syllable may remain long, an t is in- 
serted after e ; as, anevdo), oireiod). 

(D.) In this latter case, however, particularly when 
the verb ends in ^w, crcrct), or ttg)^ usage must be 
attended to, since many verbs of this kind are 
formed in a different manner in the future. Thus, 
f becomes ^ in some ; as, fcpd^o)^ icpd^G), where 
the original form of the present was in yo) ; as, 
Kpdyo), KpayeoG), upd^o) ; in others it becomes 
y^w ; as, irXd^o), nXdy^G), where the original form 
of the present was in yyo) ; as, rcXdyyo), rrXayye- 
GO), nXdy^G). 

(E.) Verbs in ggg) and tto) are most of them derived 
from forms in kg) and %a), and hence have the fu- 
ture in ^6). Thus, (pptGGO), (ppc^G) ; old form (ppino), 
(ppLKEGG), (ppL^Ci). And again, rapaGGCo, rapd^o) ; old 
form Tapdx(^, rapaxsGO), rapd^o). Other verbs in 
GGG) and TTG) are considered merely as lengthened 
forms of verbs pure, or verbs in g) with a vowel or 
diphthong preceding, and hence they make the fu- 
ture in GG) : as, dpfio^G), dpfioGO). 

8. Verbs pure, whose final syllable is preceded by a 
diphthong, undergo no change in the future except the as- 



REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 113 

sumption of a \ as, anovCi), dfcovao) ; navG), TravGO). In 
other verbs pure, where a vov^el precedes the termination, 
the short vowel of the present becomes long before the a ; 
as, daicpvG), Satcpvao) ; tlg), tIgg), Hence verbs in ew, aw, 
and 6w have the long vowel in the penult of the future ; 
as, (piXeG), (piXTjOG) ; TifidCiX, TLfX7](jo) ; ')(^pvo6G)^ XP'^^^^^- 
The following exceptions, however, must be noted : 

(A,) The termination eoj makes eog) in reXEO), dp- 
jceo), vsLneo), and some others ; as, reXsao), dpice- 
GG)^ vsifcscjG).. These futures are very probably 
from old presents in g). 

(B.) Some verbs in sgj have egg) and tjgg) ; as, Ka- 
XsG), KaXfjOG), Attic fcaXscG) ; alveG), alvrjacj, Attic 
alveoG). Here two forms of the present appear 
to have been originally in use, one in w, making 
£(76) in the future, and another in ew, making tjog). 

(C.) Verbs in ao), whose final syllable is preceded 
by e or i, or by the consonants X and p, have the 
future in doG). And this future is short if a vowel 
or the letter p precede ao) in the present, but oth- 
erwise it is long. Thus, kdo), edoG) ; 6pdG), dpd- 
(76) ; but yeXdG), yeXdoG), 

(D.) But the following verbs in a6) make r]aG) in the 
future, namely, ovXdo) and xpdG), Verbs which 
have before the final a6) have also generally 
^(76) ; as, f3odG), porjOG). 

(E.) The termination 6g) makes 6(76) in verbs which 
are not derivative ; as, ofioG), ofioGG) ; dpoG), dpo- 

(76), &LC. 

9. The verbs KaiG) and nXaiG), in Attic fcdG) and icXdG), 
make the future in -avoG) ; as, KavoG), tcXavoG). 

10. Verbs in Xg), ficj, vg), p6), shorten the penult when 
forming the future ; as, dfivvG), dfivvG) ; fcptvG), fcpcvGJ, This 
arises from the circumstance of the tone in the future rest- 
ing on the last syllable. 

11. Many barytone verbs are frequently formed by the 
Attics and lonians, like contracted verbs, by changing 6) 
into 7/(76) ; as, paXXcj, f3aXXr}aG) ; fBoaiCG), jSoanrjOG) ; tvtttg), 
TVTcrrjaG), 

K2 



114 REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 

2. PerfecL 

1. Verbs in iig) and vg) presuppose a future in r]aG) ; as, 
re/zo), vevsfjiTjKa ; fievG), fiefiEvrjfca, In these perfects the fu- 
tures vejjLrjGG), fxevrjOG) are presupposed, which, however, 
were hardly in use any more than the forms of the present 
VEfieo), fievEG), &c. 

2. Generally, rj and e in the future and perfect are fre- 
quently interchanged. Thus 6sg) has Srjao) in the future, 
and dedeica in the perfect. On the other hand, rcaXeo) has 
commonly in the future KaXeao), but in the perfect icefcXrjKa 
by syncope for fcendXrjKa. 

3. Some verbs take o) before tc instead of rj ; as, fXEfx- 
dXcdna for fZEfjboXrjica, where j3 is put between fi and A, as 
in fjLEarjfidpLa. So olxcoica, from otxofiac, instead of OLx^jtca ; 
and 7TE7TrG)/ca, from ttetg) or ttctttg), instead of TTETTrrjKa, 

3. Second Aorist, 

1. As a short penult is required in the second aorist, it 
frequently happens that, when two consonants come together 
which lengthen the vowel, they are transposed ; as, SipfCG), 
EdpaKov ; TCEpdo), EirpaOov ; where the original forms were 
Edapnov and Errapdov. 

2. Verbs pure have no second aorist, and the forms 
which do occur come from barytone verbs. Thus, EOTEpov 
comes from orEpo), not orEpEG) ; eSovtzov from dovno), not 
doviTEG). 

3. If the second aorist would only have been distinguished 
from the imperfect by a short penult, or if it would have 
differed in no respect, as to form and quantity, from that 
tense, the verb has no second aorist active. It may have, 
however, a second aorist passive. Thus, ypd(j)G) has no 
second aorist active, but it has iypdcprjv in the passive. 



FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 115 

2. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 
The Present 
is formed from the present active by changing co into ofiai ; 
as, TVTTTW, rvTrroixai. 

The Imperfect 
is formed from the imperfect active by changing ov into 
ofiTjv ; as, ervTTTOV, eTVTTTOfiTjv. 

The Perfect 
is formed from the perfect active by changing, in the 

First conjugation, \ t" P^'^ ^^/° ^/^^^ ' tf ' '''^^''^''' ^f W^'* 
•' ° ( (pa impure " fiat ; " TET£p(f)aj Terep/LtaL. 

Second conjugation, ;\;a *' y/Lcac ; " TieTiexa, TiDieyixat. 

Third conjugation, /ca '' c/zat ; " Tre^pa/ca, Tze^paofiai, 

Fourth conjugation, /ca " /^ai ; " eipaTiKa, EipaX/Lcac. 

In verbs of the third conjugation, however, fca is changed 
into fiat when a long vowel or pa precedes the final sylla- 
ble ; as, aneipaG), GTrecpdaG), eoTceipana, EGnetpafiat ; 6pd(0, 
dpaoG), dsSpana, dsdpdfiai ; (piXeG), (piXrjGG), 7TE(f)iXriKa^ rre^t- 
Xrjfiac, Slc. 

But there are exceptions to this rule in the case of some 
verbs, which have a diphthong before the final o) of the ac- 
tive, since diphthongs have arisen from the short vowel 
made long; as, dfcovco, 7]fcovG[iaL; TrracG), eirraiaiiai^ '&pavG), 
reSpavofiac, &c. 

Verbs in atvG), which make -jKa in the perfect active, 
make, after rejecting y, the termination of the perfect pas- 
sive in Gfiai ; as, (patvo), 'Ke(t)aytca, TtecpaGfjiaL. 

In some verbs the quantity is changed ; as, irenoyKa, Tre- 
TTOfiat, from ttlvg) ; and deSojKa, dedoiiai^ from SidGyfit. 

The vowel o in the perfect active, which was derived 
from e of the present, is again changed to e in the perfect 
passive ; as, kXetttg), fC£icXo(pa, rcsKXefjiiiat ; ttsiiitg), Trenofji- 
<pa, TTerreiiiiac, 



116 FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 

But if p with another consonant precede the o, it is 
changed in the perfect passive into a ; as, OTpe(pG), eorpo' 
(pa, eoTpafijjiat ; rpenG), rerpocpa, TeTpa[ifiaL. 

The third person plural of the perfect is formed from the 
third person singular by inserting v before rat ; as, necpt- 
Xrjvrai, from rrscptXrjTaL. But if the first person of the per- 
fect passive end in fiai impure, that is, wath a consonant 
preceding it, the third person plural is formed by a peri- 
phrasis of the verb eifjti and the perfect participle ; as, re- 
TVfifiat, rervfifxevoL elcL^ 

This same periphrasis is employed in the optative and 
subjunctive moods, when the perfect ends in jxac impure ; 
as, Tervfifjievog elrjv, Tervfifxevog w. But not when the per- 
fect ends in jiac pure ; as, rerifi'qfirjv, reTi[i(x)iiaL, 

The Pluperfect 

is formed from the perfect by changing fiac into firjv, and 
prefixing e to the continued augment, if there be a redupli- 
cation ; as, TervfifxaL, erervimfjirjv. 

The third person plural of the pluperfect is fonned by a 
periphrasis of eijJiL and the perfect participle, whenever the 
perfect from which it is derived ends in fiac impure ; as, 
rerviiixevot fjaav. 

The First Aorist 
is formed from the third person singular of the perfect by 
dropping the reduplication, changing rat into ^t/v, and the 
preceding smooth into an aspirated mute ; as, rirvTrraiy 
ervcpdrjv. 

Four verbs take a before the termination drjv, although 
it is not found in the third person of the perfect ; as, fj^efi- 
vrjrat, efjbvrjodrjv ; KexprjraL, exp'^odriv ; eppcdrat, eppcjadrjv ; 

1. This is done from a principle of euphony, since TervTrvTac would 
be too harsh for the ear. The same remark applies to the pluperfect, 
and to the optative and subjunctive moods. 



FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 117 

TTSTTXTjraL, £7TXrjadr]v. On the contrary, (j£GO)GTat makes 
iacodrjv. 

Some which have tj in the perfect passive receive an s 
in the first aorist ; as, evprjrai, £vped7]v ; ETTrjvrjrai, enxjv- 
edrjv ; d(l)'qprjTac, dcprjpeSrjv. From 8Lp7]raL the aorist is ep- 
prjd7]v and eppeOrjv. 

Verbs which change e of the future into o of the perfect 
active, and into a in the perfect passive, take s again in the 
first aorist ; as, eGrparrraL, earpecbOrjv ; rerpariTat, erpscj)- 
Orjv ; redpanraL, sOpscpdTjv. 

The First Future 
is formed from the first aorist by dropping the augment, 
and changing drjv into OrjaoiiaL ; as, ervcpdrjv, rvcpdrjaoiiac. 

The Second Aorist 

is formed from the second aorist active by changing ov into 
r]v '^ as, ervTTOV, £tv7T7]v. 

No second aorist passive occurs in dr]v, '&7]v, rrjv ; or 
from verbs in w pure, except efcd7]v, edd7]v, sppvrjv, ecfyvrjv. 

The Second Future 

is formed from the second aorist by dropping the augment, 
and changing rjv into riaojiai ; as, ervrrrjv, rv7TrjG0[.taL, 

The Third Future, 

or Paulo-post-futurum, is formed from the second person 
singular of the perfect by changing at into oiiai ; as, Terv- 
ipat, TETVipoiiai. 

3. FORMATION OF THE MIDDLE TENSES. 

The Present and Imperfect 

are the same in form as those of the passive voice, and are 
similarly formed. 



118 FORMATION OF THE MIDDLE TENSES. 

The Perfect 

is formed from the second aorist active by prefixing the 
reduplication, and changing ov into a ; as, ervnov, rervna. 

If the second aorist has a or £ in the penult, the perfect 
middle changes this into o ; as, anetpG), sGnapov, eanopa ; 
eyetpo), ijyepov, rjyopa. 

But if the a in the penult of the second aorist comes 
from at or rj in the present, or is long there by position, 
the perfect changes it into rj ; as, fxaivofiat, efjidvr]v, fjisfirj- 
va ; nXrjaao), errXayov, TTeTTArjya ; i^aAAo), edaXov, redrjXa ; 
K^d^G), efcXayov, KsuXriya, 

The exceptions to this rule are the following : rcpd^o), 
Efcpayov, KEfcpdya ; Trpdaoo), enpayov, neTrpdya ; (fypd^cj, 
ecppadov, irecppada ; ado), edSa ; dyd)^ " to break," edya. 

If the second aorist has i in the penult from a present 
in ei, the perfect middle changes it into oi ; as, Treido), ettl- 
Gov, TTSTTOtda ; XeinG), sXtnov, XeXoina ; eldo), l6ov, ol6a. 

But if t be already in the present, the perfect merely 
lengthens it after having been short in the second aorist ; 
as, rpi^o), erplyov, rerplya. 

In some verbs the penult of the perfect middle remains 
short ; as, aKrjicoa, from dfcovG) ; sXrjXvda, from eXevScj. 
On the other hand, we have nSipevya, from (l)evyG) ; KenevOa, 
from ksvOg) ; rerevxci, from revx^- 

The verb prjaoo) makes eppcdya ; so, also, we have eoX- 
Tza, from sXttg) ; eopya, from epyo) ; £LO)da, from eOco, 

Some perfects appear to be formed immediately from the 
present by changing o) into a, and prefixing the reduplica- 
tion ; as, dovTTG), dedovna ; 6iG), Sedta ; and so, also, dvcjya, 
for 7]VG)ya. 

The Pluperfect 
is formed from the perfect by prefixing e, and changing a 
into etv ; as, rervna ^ erervnsiv. 



REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE TENSES. 119 

The First Aorist 
is formed from the first aorist active by adding /i?yv ; as, 
erv^pa, ervipdiirjv. 

The First Future 

is formed from the first future active by changing o) into 
Ofiac ; as, tviIjoj, rvipofiac. 

In verbs of the fourth conjugation c5 is changed into ov- 
fiac ; as, ipa?iO), ipaXovfiat. 

The Second Aorist 
is formed from the second aorist active by changing ov into 
ofiTjv ; as, ervrrrov, eTvnrdfirjv. 

The Second Future 
is formed from the second future active by changing g) into 
oviiat ; as, tvttco, rvnoviiai. 

REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE TENSES. 
1. Present, 

1. The true Attic termination^ of the second person sin- 
gular is EL. And this form is employed also to distinguish 
the subjunctive from the indicative. The termination in ^ 
for the second person of the present indicative belongs to 
the common dialect. 

2. The old form of the second person was in -ecat, from 
which the lonians made -eai, and the Attics -et. Thus, 
rvrrreaaL ; Ion. rvnreac ; Att. rvTrreL ; common dialect 
rvTcrrj. 

3. The old form in aat for the second person continued 
in use, I. In some contracted verbs ; as, odvvdofjiaL, oSv- 
vaeaat ; nav^doiiai^ fcavxdeaat. 11. In verbs in fjtt ; as, 

1. The old rule used to be, that only three verbs retained this et in 
the second person, namely, l3ov?iOfj.at, dnrofiaLy and oiofiat, making re- 
spectively (3ov7.£L, oTJjec, and olet. But the best editions now restore €l 
to the second persons of all verbs. Compare Porson, Prccf. ad Hec, 
p. iv. 



120 FORCE OF THE TENSES. 

larafiai^ loraaai^ &c. III. In the perfect and pluperfect 
passiv^e of all verbs ; the e, however, before the cr, being 
dropped, and the double consonant brought in ; as, rervxpac 
for rervireaai ; srervxl^o for sTsrvneaG). IV. In some ir- 
regular futures ; as, eSofiat, edsoat ; (l)dyofiat, (pdyeoai. 

2. Imperfect. 

The old form of the second person singular of this tense 
was ervTTreGo, from which the lonians made ervTrreo, and 
the Attics srvirrov, 

3. First Future. 

The second person singular of this tense ended original- 
ly in eoat, whence the lonians formed eat, and the Attics 
ec. The form ^ belongs to the common dialect. 

3. FORCE OF THE TENSES. 
General Remarks, 

1. The time in which an action can take place is either 
present, past, or future. There are thus in Greek, as in ev- 
ery language, three principal tenses, the Present (6 evea- 
rcjg), the Preterit, and the Future (6 fieXXov), 

2. Of the present there is only one simple form in Greek, 
but for the preterit there are more than in any other lan- 
guage. 

3. An action, for instance, is represented as either in itself 
and absolutely past, or as relatively past in respect to an- 
other time expressed or conceived. The aorist serves to 
denote the time entirely past ; the imperfect, the perfect, and 
the pluperfect, the relative time . 

4. The imperfect (6 rraparartfcog) represents a past ac- 
tion as continuing during another past action, and accom- 
panying it ; the perfect {xpovog napaiceifievog tg) irapovrt) 
and pluperfect (6 vnepavvreXtKog) designate an action com- 
pleted, but continuing in its immediate consequences to an- 
other time ; the perfect to the present, the pluperfect to a 
time past. 

5. In the same way the future is conceived under three 
modifications ; either as simply future, without reference 
to another action, as in the first and second futures active 



FORCE OF THE TENSES. 121 

and future middle ; or as future and complete, as in the 
jirst and second futures passive ; or as future and with refer- 
ence to an action to take place in a still more remote futu- 
rity, as in the third future passive. 

Special Remarks. 

1. According to what has just been remarked, the pres- 
ent, as in all languages, designates an action present and 
still incomplete ; while, of the three tenses of past time, 
the aorist marks a past action in itself, without any refer- 
ence to another action at the same or a different time. 

2. The perfect, on the contrary, expresses an action 
which has taken place, indeed, at a previous time, but is 
connected, either in itself or its consequences, or its ac- 
companying circumstances, with the present time. Thus, 
eypaiba, " I wrote," signifies, indeed, the completion of the 
action ; but it does not determine whether the consequen- 
ces of it, namely, the writing which I have written, be still 
existing or not. On the contrary, yeypa(j)a, " I have writ- 
ten," besides indicating the fact of my having written, 
shows also the continued existence of the writing. In the 
same manner, ysydfirjica, " I am married ;" on the contrary, 
sydiirjGa, " I married." Hence KenrrjfiaL signifies, " I pos- 
sess," properly, " I have acquired unto myself, and the ac- 
quisition is still mine." 

3. The perfect retains its reference to a continued action 
through all the moods. Thus, 6 fxev Xrjarijg ovrog eg rbv 
UvpLcpXeyedovra efi6ed?irjGdG), " Let this robber be cast into 
Pyriphlegethon, and remain there.^^ And again, e^LOvreg, 
elrrov ttjv '&vpav fcsfcXeladaL, " On going out, they gave di- 
rections that the door should be shut, and kept ^o." 

4. The imperfect expresses, 1. An action continuing du- 
ring another action which is past. It differs from the aorist 
in this, that the aorist marks an action past, but transient ; 
the imperfect an action past, but at that time continuing. 
Thus, rovg ueXraordg ede^avro (an immediate action) ol 
(3dp6apot fcal efidxovro (continued action) enel d' eyyvg 
fjaav (continued) ol birXlrai erpdrrovro (immediate) ;A:ai ol 
uev TTeXTaaTOA evOvg elfTOvro (continued). " The barbari- 
ans received the targeteers and fought ; but when the heavy 
armed men were near they turned away in flight, and the 



122 FORCE OF THE TENSES. 

5. The imperfect also expresses, 2. An action continued 
by being frequently repeated ; as, rbv olrov rbv ev rxj x^' 
pa discpOeLpere teal ttjv yrjv ereiivsre. " You destroyed^ 
from time to time, the grain throughout the country, and you 
ravaged the land^ 

6. This same tense also expresses, on some occasions, 
an action begun or contemplated, but not completed ; or, in 
other words, an attempt not brought to a successful conclu- 
sion. As, efiLodovTO, ^' he wished to hire^^ {Herod. 1. 68) ; 
and again, Ta\jJ edvrjcTKe reicva, "• my children were on the 
point of losing their lives^ 

7. The third future passive refers to an action which 
will be permanent or continued in future time ; and it there- 
fore bears the same relation to the other futures as, among 
the tenses of the past time, the perfect does to the aorist. 
It is sometimes, therefore, in consequence of this, styled the 
Perfect's Future. Thus, eiiol ds XeXetipsrat dXyea Xvypd, 
" while mournful woes shall continue to remain unto Twe." 
And again, 6 TToXtrrjg ev tcaraXoyu) ovdelg jjLereyypacfyrjaerat, 
aXk\ coanep r}v to rrpcorov, eyyeypd-iperai. " No citizen 
shall become enrolled in another class, but shall remain en^ 
rolled in that in which he was at first. ^^ 

8. Hence, of those verbs whose present marks only the 
beginning of an action, but the perfect the complete action, 
the third future is used in order to show that the perfect 
action is to happen in future ; as, KTaofiac, " / acquire ;'' 
KstCTTjfjLaL, "/ possess ;^^ Kenrrjaofiat, "/ shall possess J^ 
Whereas fCTrjGO[iat means merely, " / shall acquire for my^ 
self." 

9. The third future is therefore often used to express 
the rapidity of an action by taking, not the beginning of it, 
but its completion and the state resulting from it ; as, neiT' 
avaerac, " he shall instantly cease ;" Trenpa^erat,, " it shall 
be immediately doneJ^ It is this meaning which has ob^ 
tained for it the less correct name of Paulo-post-futurum,. 
namely, what will take place soon, or a little after the 
present. 

10. Besides the simple forms of the future, there is also 
a periphrastic future, made up of /zeAAcj and the infinitive 
of the present, the aorist, or the future, and corresponding 
with the Latin periphrastic future of the participle in urus 
and the verb sum. It answers to the English, " being about 
to do anything ;^^ '* intending to do a thing ^^ &LC, 



FORCE OF THE TENSES. 123 

11. The aorist not only refers to instantaneous action, 
but is also frequently employed with the meaning, *' to be 
wont." Thus, 7]v rtg tovtg)v tl napadatvxi ^rjiitav eirede- 
aav, " If any person transgress any one of these, they inflict 
punishment upon him^ 

12. The second aorist differs from the first in form alone, 
not in meaning. Two modes of forming the past or his- 
torical tense got early into use in Greece ;^ the one gave 
that which we call the first aorist, the other that which we 
call the second aorist. The former, from its origin, was 
truly a distinct tense, having a system of terminations alto- 
gether peculiar to itself ; but the latter is little else than a 
slight modification of the imperfect. Usage early declared 
itself in favour of the former ; and, at the period when Greek 
literature began, the second form obtained only in a limited 
number of the more primitive verbs ; Avhile every verb of 
more recent and derivative formation exhibited the first ex- 
clusively. In a very few words only are both forms to be 
found ; and even in these, the duplicates, for the most part, 
belong to different dialects, ages, or styles. In import, these 
two forms of the aorist never differed. 

13. A satisfactory illustration of the principle which has 
just been stated in relation to the second aorist may be 
found in our own language. In English, also, there are 
two originally distinct modes of forming the common past 
tense : the first by adding the syllable ed^ as in / killed ; 
the other chiefly by certain changes in the vowels ; as in / 
wrote, I saw, I knew, I ran, &c. Let the student call the 
former and regular form the first aorist, and the latter the 
second, and he will have a correct idea of the amount of 
the distinction between those tenses in Greek. The form 
ervipa in Greek is what / killed is in English ; that is, the 
regular form of the past tense, which obtains in a vast ma- 
jority of verbs : the form eXadov, on the contrary, is alto- 
gether analogous to / took, or / saw, acknowledged by all 
grammarians not as a second or distinct preterit, but as 
an instance of irregular variety of formation obtaining in 
certain verbs. 

14. It may be objected to this view of the subject, that 
there are verbs in Greek in which both forms of the aorist 
occur. A careful examination, however, will prove that 

1. Philological Museum, No. iv.,p. 197. Camhridgey 1832. 



124 VOICES, 

the number of such verbs is extremely small compared with 
that of those which have only the one or the other aorist. 
But even here the analogy is supported by the English 
verb, since we meet with many instances in which English 
verbs retain both forms of the preterit. Thus, for exam- 
ple, / hanged, or / hung ; I spit, or / spat ; I awaked, or / 
awoke ; I cleft^ I clave, or / clove. Such duplicates in 
Greek verbs are extremely rare ; probably there is not one 
Greek verb in five hundred in which they can be met with. 
The form called the second aorist is, indeed, common 
enough ; but, then, where it exists, that of the first aorist 
is almost always wanting. We have evpov, eXabov, eldov, 
TJyayov, eXiirov, sSpafiov ; but the regular form is as much 
a nonentity in these verbs as it is in the English verbs / 
found, I took, I saw, I led, I left. I ran, &:c. The first 
aorist in these would be sheer vulgarity ; it would be par- 
allel to I fnded^ I taked, I seed. 

15. In strictness, therefore, the Greek verb has but one 
aorist active ; that aorist, when regular, following the model 
of ervipa, but being sometimes formed less regularly, in 
another manner, like eXa6ov, Now and then, in the variety 
of dialects and styles, two forms appear in the same verb, 
as in STretaa and sttlOov ; one of these, however, as in this 
instance enscaa, being that in ordinary use, the other rare, 
anomalous, and nearly obsolete. 

16. The second future, also, has only, in strictness, an 
existence in name, and the same principle may be applied 
to it as in the case of the second aorist. Verbs in Aw, (ig), 
VG), p(i), have no second future ; in other verbs the second 
future is only a dialect modification of the first. 

4. VOICES. 

The active and passive voices of the Greek verb have 
nothing very peculiar in their signification when compared 
with the corresponding voices of the Latin verb. We shall 
therefore confine our remarks to 

The Middle Voice. 

1. The Middle Voice has been so called by grammarians, 
as having a middle signification between the active and 
passive, implying neither action nor passion simply, but a 
union in some degree of both. 



VOICES. 125 

2. The principal usages of the middle voice are five in 
number. The first four may be called usages of reflexive, 
the fifth the usage of reciprocal signification J 

I. Where A does the act on himself, or on what 
belongs to himself ; or, in other words, is the ob- 
ject of his own action; as, dTTTjy^aro, ^' he hung 
himself ;^^ ice(t)a?^rjv enoiparo, " he wounded his own 
head:' 
II. Where A does the act on some other object M, 
relatively to himself, and not for another person ; 
as, fcarearps^aTO rov Mrj6ov, " he made the Median 
subject to himself 

III. Where A gets an act done for himself, or for 
those belonging to him, by B. Thus of Chryses 
it is said, in the Iliad, that he came to the Grecian 
camp, XvGOfievog '^vyarpa, ^' to get his daughter 
released by Agamemnon, on the payment of a ran- 
som ;" that is, briefly, " to ransom his daughter:^ 
Whereas, of Agamemnon it is said, ov6^ aixeXvos 
i^vyarpa, " he did not release her,''' namely, to 
Chryses. Under this same head may be ranked 
the following instances : didd^aadai rov vlov, 
^' to get one's son instructed ;'' davei^G), " to lend ;" 
SavsL^ofxaL, " to get a loan for one^s self " to bor- 
row.'' 

IV. Where, in such verbs as noirroiiab, " to mourn f'^ 
oevofxac^ " to urge one's self on^" the direct action 
is done by A on himself, but an accusative or 
other case follows of B, whom that action farther 
regards. Thus, eKO'ipavro avrov, " they mourned 
for him ;" i. e., they cut or lacerated themselves 

for him, liSvovrac avrov, " they stir themselves 
in pursuit of him." 'FiTtXXeaOrjv avrov, " they 
tore their hair in mourning for him," So, also, 
(pvXd^ai Tov TTolSa, " to guard the boy ;" but </)V- 
Xd^aoBai rov Xeovra, " to guard one^s self against 
the lion." And again, where, in the Iliad, it is 
said of Hector, w^ elrrcbv, ov rraldog ope^aro, " thus 
having spoken, he stretched out his arms to receive 
his son" 



1. Mus. Crit. No. 1, p. 102, seq. 
L2 



126 VOICES. 

V. Where the action is reciprocal between two 
persons or parties, and A does to B what B does 
to A ; as in verbs signifying to contract^ quarrel^ 
fight ^ converse, &;c. Thus, in Demosthenes, it is 
said, ew^ av diaXvacjiieda rbv noXefiov, " until we 
shall have put an end to the war^ hy treaty mutual- 
ly agreed upon.^^ To this head belong such verbs 
as fidx^odai, anevdeadac, diaXeyeadat, &c. 

2. Though, on some occasions, the active voice is used 
where the middle would be proper, that is, where the act 
is denoted without relation to the agent, though there does 
exist a middle verb, so to denote it, yet where the two 
voices exist in actual use, the middle denoting the action 
relatively to the agent, as in No. II., is very seldom, if ever, 
in pure Attic, used to denote the action when it regards 
another person. Thus, iardvac rponaiov may be said of 
an army who erect their own trophy ; for it is true, as far 
as it goes, they do erect a trophy. But earrjoaro rpoiraiov 
cannot be said of him who erected a trophy for others, but 
only earrjaev, 

3. In many verbs, the perfect, pluperfect, and aorist pas- 
sive are used in a middle sense, besides the ordinary mean- 
ing of the passive. Thus, enidedeiyfjisvog r7]v TTOvrjpLav, 
" having openly manifested his wickedness ;" fiefj,i,GdG)ijievog 
XoJpov, " having hired a piece of ground ,*" fcarsKXtdrj, " he 
laid himself down ;" dTrrjXXdyrj, " he departed.^^ The regu- 
lar middle form of the aorist in such verbs is unusual or 
obsolete. In some it has a special signification ; as, oraX- 
rjvac, " to travel ,*" but areiXaaOai, " to array one^s self'^''^ 

1 . As regards the use of the perfect and pluperfect passive in a mid- 
dle sense, the opinion of Buttmann appears the most rational, that in all 
cases where a verb has a regular middle voice, with its appropriate re- 
flex signification, the perfect and pluperfect passive, and they alone, are 
used as the perfect and pluperfect of that voice, and possess that signifi- 
cation along with their own. In conformity with this doctrine, the mid- 
dle voice would seem to be nothing else than the passive verb, used 
under a peculiar modification of its meaning, and illustrating the ten- 
dency of the Greeks in early times to look upon themselves in all reflex 
acts, whether external or internal, as patients rather than agents ; a ten- 
dency which is exemplified in every page of the Homeric poems, and 
which belongs more or less to every people in an early stage of civiHza- 
tion, before the nation comes of age, and acquires the consciousness, 
along with the free use, of its powers. This seems to be the reason 



VOICES. 127 

4. With regard to the perfect middle^ it may be remarked, 
that this tense is of very rare occurrence, so as to have far 
more the character of an occasional redundancy than of a 
regular formation. In fact, when the preterit exists in this 
particular form, it very rarely exists in the same verb in 
any other form ; and where two forms do occur, it will gen- 
erally be found that the one did not come into use till the 
other was growing obsolete. The perfect middle, it is true, 
has undoubtedly some degree of alliance with a neuter 
meaning, but then this alliance is very far from being con- 
stant. This form has often a truly active and transitive 
signification ; as, for example, XeXoiTia, " / have left /' en- 
Tova, " / have killed ,*" while, on the other hand, the form 
considered as active is of frequent occurrence in a neuter 
or reflex sense ; as in fCEfCfXTjKa, " / am iveary ;" earrjua, " I 
stand ;" fxejxevrjfca, " / remain ;" Pedicofia, " 1 have lived,^^ 
Sic. These instances, which might be easily multiplied, 
are sufficient to prove that there is no good ground for as- 
signing to either of these forms of the perfect any determi- 
nate cast of signification, whether it be active or neuter. 
Some preference of what is called the middle form for the 
neuter sense is the utmost that can with truth be ascer- 
tained. In a few instances both the forms certainly do ex- 
ist, and with a characteristic difference of signification ; as, 
oXcoXefca, " / have destroyed ,*" and 6XG)Xa, '' I am undone ;" 
7T£7TSiica, " / have persuaded ;" and TcenoLda, ^' I am confi- 
dent;'^^ in others the two forms occur, indeed, but with little 



why so many of the verbs employed by the Greeks to denote states of 
mind or of feeling have a passive form, such as olofiai {ot/uaL), alaOdvo- 
^at^ GHETTToibLai, kirtfyrafiaL, ^ovXofiac, dya/iat, r/do/Liai, juatvofiac. In 
some tenses, indeed, in which a variety of forms presented itself, one of 
them was allotted more peculiarly to the passive signification, another to 
the middle : that instinct which, in all languages, is evermore silently at 
work in giving definiteness to the speech of a people, in proportion as 
its thoughts become more definite, manifested itself in assigning one 
form of the future and aorist to the passive voice, another to the middle ; 
the preference being perhaps determined by the affinity of the latter to 
the corresponding active tenses, of the former to the perfect passive. 
Instances, however, remain to show that, at the time when the Greek 
language comes first into view, the line of demarcation was not deemed 
quite impassable ; and the passive voice would not unfrequently assert 
its rights to its cast-off future, and now and then, though very rarely, 
even to the aorist. PhUol. Museum, No. iv., p. 221, seq, 
I. Philol. Museur/ij No. iv., p. 200. 



128 FORCE OP THE MOODS. 

discrimination in sense ; as, Trerrpaxd and nerrpaya, SedotKd 
and 6s6ta. 

5. The future middle is often found in a passive sense, 
the reason of which appears to be this. That form of the 
future which, in the later ages of the Greek language, 
when the grammarians wrote, seems to have been used ex- 
clusively in a middle sense, had previously a wider range 
legitimately belonging to it. 

6. FORCE OF THE MOODS. 
Indicative* 

The indicative is used in Greek when anything is to be 
represented as actually existing or happening, and as some- 
thing independent of the thought and conception of the 
speaker. Hence it is put in very many cases where, in 
Latin, the subjunctive must be used. 

1. The indicative is put after relatives, both pronouns 
and particles, where, in Latin, the dependance of this clause 
is expressed by the subjunctive ; the Greek often uses the 
future of the indicative to denote what shall or will happen, 
not what is merely conceived as such. Thus, SopL Philoct. 
303, ov yap rig opfiog earlv, ov6' onot rrXecov, k^eiiiroXriGeL 
Kepdog, 7] ^evG)a€Tac, *' For there is no harbour (here), nor 
any place unto which one sailing shall carry on therein gain- 
ful traffic, or he hospitably entertained.^^ 

2. The indicative is also used after negative propositions 
with the relative ; as, rrap' efiol ovdslg fiLadocpopel, oang jU?) 
inavog eariv ioa rcovelv sfioi, " No soldier serves for pay 
with me who is not able to endure equal toils with me." 
Here the Latin idiom would require qui possit, 

3. The indicative is likewise used in indirect interroga- 
tions ; thus, opdre re TTOtovfiev, " You see what we are act- 
ually doing. ^^ Whereas, opdre ri TTOtaJfisv means, " You 
see what we are to do,'*'' So, also, enelvog olde rev a rponov 
ol veoL 6ia(f)deipovTai, *•'• He knows in what way the young 
are actually destroyed.''^ Here ScacpOeLpoivro av would 
mean, '' might have been destroyedJ*^ 

Imperative, 

The imperative is used in Greek, as in other languages, 
in addresses, entreaties, commands, &;c. The personal 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 129 

pronouns, as in other languages, are omitted, except when 
they serve for distinction or have an emphasis. 

1. The second person sometimes receives an indefinite 
subject, and thus stands, as it were, for the third ; as, irals, 
Trals nag rtg dv^ " Strike, strike, every one, whosoever thou 
mayst heP 

2. Sometimes the plural of the imperative is used, though 
only one person be addressed, whenever strength of feeling 
is meant to be expressed, or any other force is to be im- 
parted to the clause ; as, irpoGeWsr', (b nal, Trarpc, '• Come, 
oh my child, to thy father.''^ 

3. The negative [it] is joined in prohibitions with the 
imperative, if the present tense be required ; but, if the 
aorist be needed, the mood then changes to the subjunc- 
tive ; as, Herod. 1, 155, gv (isvtol firj navra '&v[i(I) %pea), 
fxrjde e^avaarrjGTjg ttoXlv apxai'riv, " Do not thou indeed 
yield in all things to thy anger, nor have destroyed an ancient 
city^ So in Od, 16, 168, we have ii7]6' e-mnevde, ^' and 
he not concealing it ;^^ but in Od. 15, 263, firjS' errtfcevcfrjg, 
'^ and do not have concealed it."*^ 

4. The imperative is used not unfrequently by the Attic 
poets in a dependant proposition after olod' 6)g, or olod' b ; 
as. Soph, CEd. T. 543, olaO' (hg ttoltjgov ; " Knowest thou in 
what way thou must act ?" (i. e., act, knowest thou in what 
way ?) ; olgO' ovv b dpdoov ; " knowest thou what to do V 
(i. e., do^ knowest thou what ?) 

5. The imperative sometimes expresses not so much a 
command as a declaration of what is proper to be done, 
according to the situation in which a person is placed ; as, 
Eurip. Iph, T. 337, ev^ov (5s roidd' Gcpdyta TrapslvaL, 
" thou shouldst wish^ therefore, for such victims to he pres- 
ent. "^"^ So, also, jEschyl. Prom. 713, arelx' dvTjporovg 
yvag, " thou must go over unploughed fields,^'' 

6. Hence the imperative is found also in interrogations, 
after particles or the relative ; as. Plat, Leg. 7, p. 801, D., 
ri ovv ; KStodo) vofxog ; " what then ? shall a law exist ?" 

Optative, 

The optative and subjunctive express, according to its 
different modifications and shades of meaning, that which 
in Latin can only be signified by the subjunctive. Both 
represent an action, not as something real, but rather as 



130 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

something only conceived of. That which is conceived of, 
hov^ever, is either something merely possible, probable, de- 
sirable, and, consequently, uncertain, or something w^hich, 
as it depends on external circumstances, may be expected 
with some definiteness. The former is expressed by the 
optative, the latter by the subjunctive. Hence, 

The optative is used to indicate a wish, something mere- 
ly possible or probable, and, therefore, especially accompa- 
nies past actions. 

Optative in dependant propositions. 

1. The optative is used in the expression of a wish, and 
is then put without ar, or its equivalent the poetic ke ; as, 
Ttaecav Aavaol eiid SaKpva goIol fieXeaoiv, " May the 
Greeks atone for my tears hy thy arrows, ^^ And again, S) 
TTol yevoLO irarpbg evrvxsarepog, " Oh, my son^ mayst thou 
he more fortunate than thy father,'''' 

2. In this case, el, el yap, or elOe, utinam, or i)g, or else 
TTWf av, are often used with the optative ; as, Od. 3, 205, 
el yap efiot roaarjvde 'deol dvvaiiiv rcapaOelev, " Would 
that the gods had bestowed upon me so great power.''^ And 
again, Callim.frag. 7, XaXv6o)v ojg drroXoiro yevog, " Would 
that the race of the Chalyhes might perish,''^ 

3. On other occasions the optative is used in connexion 
with dv, or its equivalent the poetic fte, in order to give to 
a proposition an expression of mere conjecture or bare pos- 
sibility, and hence of uncertainty or doubt. Thus, Plato, 
Leg. 3, p. 677, B., ol rore irepi^vyovreg Trjv (pdopdv c^g- 
dbv bpeioi nveg dv elev vojielg, " They who on that occasion 
escaped destruction were, probably, with a few exceptions^ 
mountain shepherds^ So, also, Xenophon, Cyrop, 1, 2, 11, 
aal OrjpoJVTeg fiev ovk dv dpiarrjcjaLev, " And while actually 
engaged in the hunt they hardly ever hreakfastJ'^ Hence it 
is employed in a rough estimate ; as, Xen. Cyrop. 1, 2, 13, 
elrjaav fxev dv ovtol irXelov n ij TTevTrjKovra errj yeyovoreg 
and yevedg, " These^ on a rough estimate, are somewhat more 
than fifty years of age. ^'' 

4. The optative with dv is therefore employed also to 
denote an inclination, the indulgence of which depends on 
circumstances, and which is therefore only possible and 
contingent. Thus, PovXoiiiriv dv, "• I could wish ;" ebovX- 
oiiTjv dv, " / could have wishedj'^ So, also, Plato^ Crat, p. 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 131 

411, A., Tjdeojg dv deaGalfiTjV ravra rd KaXd ovoiiara, "/ 
would gladly contemplate those fine terms. ''^ 

5. Hence the optative occurs in interrogations ; as, IL 
3, 52, ovic dv 6rj fieLvecag ' AprjicpiXov MsveXaov ; " Couldst 
thou not then await Menelaus dear-to-Mars ?'^ So, also, 
Plato, Gorg., dXX' dpa eOeXijosiev dv rjfuv dLaXexOrjvac ; 
^' But would he be willing to converse with us ?^^ 

6. Very often, however, the optative serves to express 
even the most definite assertions v^ith modesty and polite- 
ness, as a mere conjectm^e ; a moderation which, in conse- 
quence of their political equality, was peculiar to all the 
Greeks, but particularly the Athenians, and which very 
seldom occurs in modern languages. Thus, Aristoph. 
Plut» 284, ovfcer' dv fcpvipatfic, " / will no longer conceal it 
from you^ 

Of the Optative in dependant propositions, or after con- 
junctions. 

1. When the chief verb of the whole proposition, or, in 
other words, the leading verb in the sentence, expresses 
an action of past time, the following verb, which depends 
upon the conjunction, is put in the optative. If, on the 
other hand, the leading verb be in the present or the future 
tense, the following verb is put in the subjunctive. Thus, 
that which is in Latin the sequence of tenses, is in Greek 
the sequence of moods. The subjunctive, therefore, in 
Greek, after a conjunction, answers to the Latin present of 
the subjunctive ; while the optative after a conjunction an- 
swers to the Latin imperfect of the subjunctive. 

2. The conjunctions and particles after which these 
moods are thus put are, 1. Those which express a pur- 
pose ; as, Lva, b(ppa, 6)g, brrcjg, and [jltj. 2. Particles of 
time ; as, snet, eTreidr], ore, (hg, and eirrjv, eirsiddv, brav, 
rrpcv, e(i)g, <fec. 3. Conditional particles ; as, el, and edv^ 
7]v. 4. Relatives ; as, bg, olog, oGog, bnov, bOev, &c. 

1. Optative after Iva, bcbpa, Sic. 

1. Here, particularly, the rule just mentioned holds good, 
according to which the optative is put after verbs of past 
time ; as, TvSeidrj HaXXdg eSojice fjLsvog fcal '&dpaog, Iv^ m- 
drjXog yevoiro nal KXtog dpotro, " Mirierva gave strength 



132 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

and daring to Tydides^ in order that he might hecome con^ 
spicuous^ and might hear off renown^ 

2. The optative is also employed when the leading verb 
is in the present tense as used for the past. Thus, Eurip. 
Hec. 10, TToXvv 6s ovv efiol xP'^<^ov efcneimec Xddpa narrip, 
iv\ sLTTor^ 'IXlov TEi^T] irsGOi, rolg ^ojaiv elrj iraiol iirj and- 
vtg l3tov, " And my father sends out secretly along with me a 
large quantity of gold, in order that^ if the walls of Ilium 
should fall, there might he unto his surviving children no want 
of the means of suhsistenceP 

3. Sometimes, also, the optative is used after a leading 
verb in the present or future, v^hen the action v^hich fol- 
lows the conjunction is to be marked as only presumptive 
and probable. Thus, Od. 2, 52, Trarpog fiev eg olnov drrsp- 
piyaai (present perfect) veeadai 'l/captov, cjg k' avrbg eeS- 
VG)aaiTO '&vyarpa, " They dread to go to the house of her 
Icarian father^ that he may perhaps give some dowry to his 
daughter, '^'^ So, also. Soph. CEd* Col. 11, ottigov fie fcd^t- 
dpvoov, G)g TTvOoLfieOa, " Place and seat me here, that we may 
perchance learn.'''' 

4. Very frequently, where the leading verb is in the past 
tense, the following verb is put after Iva, G)g, or fii], in the 
indicative mood, to express an action which should have 
happened, but has not. Thus, Eurip. Phcen. 213, Tvptov 

olSiia XtiTova' edav tv' vno dscpdac Hapvaaov tea- 

rsvdGdrjv, "• Having left the Tyrian wave., I came hither 
and should have heen now dwelling heneath the sum- 
mits of Parnassus.'''* 

2. Optative after particles of time. 

1. The optative is put with the particles emi, eneLdrj, 
ore, onore, where the discourse is concerning a past action, 
which, however, was not limited to a precise point of time, 
but was often repeated by several persons or in several 
places. Thus, //. 3, 232, iroXXaKi jilv ^eiviGGEV 'AprjlcpL- 
Xog MsveXaog, dnors Kprjrrjdev lkolto, " Menelaus, heloved 
of Mars, often entertained him when he came from Crete," 
So, also, Herod. 7, 6, oii:o)g dntfcoiro eg oxjjlv tt/v PaGiXrjog 
.... nareXeye rcjv XP'H^I^^'^^ ^' As often as he came into 
the presence of the king he mentioned some of the oracles^'' 

2. With the remaining particles of time, which do not 
determine a space of time during which an action takes 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 133 

place, but a point of time before or until which something 
takes place, as, ecog, ear', dv, upcv, iiexpi^ ov, the optative 
is used, for the most part, in the same cases as with Iva 
and ocjypa. Thus, Trspiefievofjisv eojg dvotx^elrj to Seafj^cdrrj- 
pLOV, " We remained about the place until the prison was 
opened.'''' But ew^, " whilst,^' " as long as,^'' has only the in- 
dicative. 

3. Optative after conditional particles, 

1 . The optative is used after conditional particles when 
the reference is to something that is merely possible or 
contingent. In this construction the optative is employed 
with dv in the apodosis, or second clause of the sentence, 
to show that a case is adduced which is merely problemat- 
ical, while in the protasis, or leading clause, the optative 
is used with el^ without dv, as the condition itself is also 
only problematical. Thus, ei rig rovg uparovvrag rov 
7TXr]6ovg sir' dperrjv rcpOTpe^eiEv, dfKporepovg dv (hcjysXrjGe- 
LEV, " If one would urge on to virtue those who control the 
multitude, he would benefit bothJ^ 

2. But when the condition contains a determinately ex- 
pressed case, St is used with the indicative in the leading 
clause. Thus, Soph. Antig, 925, dXX\ el fiev ovv rdd' 
EGTiv ev -deolg (pcXa, rcaOovreg dv ^vyyvolfisv rffiaprrjicoTeg, 
" But if then, these things are approved of among the gods^ 
ice may^ perhaps, by sufferings be made conscious that we have 
erredr 

3. On the other hand, ei is used with the optative in the 
protasis, or leading clause, and the indicative in the apodo- 
sis, or succeeding part of the sentence, when the latter as- 
serts something definitely, while the protasis conveys only 
a possible case. Thus, Thucyd. 2, 5, ol dXXoi Bi]6aiOi, 
ovg eSel TTjg vvurog irapajEVEodai TTavarparia, eI ti dpa jit) 
rrpoxo^poLrj rolg EOEXrjXvdooi, EnEporjOovv, " The rest of the 
Tliebans whom it behooved to be present during the night with 
their full force, if perchance , success should not attend those 
who had entered the city J''' 

4. Optative after the relatives og, dang, &c. 

1. If the relatives refer to definite persons or things, 
they are followed by the indicative ; but if the person or 

M 



134 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

thing be indefinite, then the verb is in the optative or sub- 
junctive ; in the optative with av when the whole proposi- 
tion affirms something of past time, and in the subjunctive 
with av when it affirms something of present or future 
time. Thus, ovnva fiev PaacXrja nal e^oxov dvdpa lax^Lrj, 
rdv6* dyavolg erreeaGtv epTjrvaaafis irapaardg, " Whatever 
monarch and distinguished chieftain he founds this one^ stand" 
ing by his side, he detained by bland words, ^^ And again, 
navrag otg) kvrvxoiev, nal rcaldag real yvvalnag, /crecvov- 
reg, " Slaying all^ whomsoever they might meet, both children 
and women.^^ 

2. From these, however, are to be distinguished those 
passages in which the optative is put after the relatives, 
in the sense which it usually has in independent proposi- 
tions. Here it regularly takes dv, and is found even when 
a present action is spoken of. Thus, ovfc eon rovrov oo- 
nq dv Karanrdvoi, " There is no one who might slay this 
person.''^ And again, ov yap tori, irepl orov ovfc dv TTtd- 
avcjrepov slttoc 6 prjropLfcdg 7] dXXog ogtloovv, " For there 
is nothing about which the rhetorician would not speak in a 
more persuasive manner than any other person whatsoever, "^^ 

5. Optative in the " oratio obliqua.^^ 

1. When anything that has been said or thought by an- 
other is quoted as such, not as an idea or sentiment of the 
writer himself, and yet, not in the words of the speaker, 
but in narration (i. e., in oratione obliqua), the optative is 
frequently used and without dv. Thus, ol 'Axapvrjg end- 
KL^ov rbv IlepcfcXea, on orparrjydg a)v ova ene^dyoL, " The 
Acharnians reviled Pericles, because, being commander, he 
did not lead forth against the foe^ And again, Ttaaa- 
(pspvrjg [lev tdiiooev 'AyrjacXaG), el oireiaatTO, ecjg eXOotev, 
ovg nefjiipete npog j^aatXea dyyeXovg, " Tissaphernes took an 
oath unto Agesilaus, that, if the latter will make a truce with 
him until the messengers should return, whom he had sent to 
the king,^^ Sic. Here nefji'ipeLe is used to indicate a mere 
assertion on the part of Tissaphernes, for the truth of which 
the writer does not mean to vouch. 

2. In particular, the optative is put in this case after ort 
or o)g, whether the action belongs to the present, past, or 
future time. Thus, r^ 6e varepaia rjicev dyyeXog Xeycjv, 
on XeXocncbg elrj Iivevveatg rd dfcpa, " On the following 
day, however a messenger came with the intelligence that 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 135 

Syennes'is had left the heights ;" i. e., had left {XeXoiiTG)g 
elrf) the heights, as the messenger said. And again, ay- 
yelXai, on (pdpfiafcov ttcgjv aTToOdvoi, " To announce that, 
having drunk poison^ he had died.^^ 

Subjunctive, 

The general distinction between the optative and sub- 
junctive has already been given, but may here be stated 
again. These two moods both represent an action, not as 
something real, but rather as something only conceived of. 
That which is conceived of, however, is either something 
merely possible, probable, desirable, and, consequently, un- 
certain, or something which, as it depends on external cir- 
cumstances, may be expected with some definiteness. 
The former is expressed by the optative, the latter by the 
subjunctive. 

1. Subjunctive in independent propositions. 

1. The subjunctive is used without dv or fcs in exhorta- 
tions in the first person plural ; as, tcofiev, " let us go ;" 
liax(^l^^Oa^ " let us fight,^'' It indicates, therefore, that 
something ought to take place. But in the second and 
third persons the optative is used, as implying more of un- 
certainty, when the speaker refers not to himself along 
with others, but to others merely. Thus, eXdcjjjiev dvd do- 
TV, fcal ai) yivoC dv ov nafcog, " Let us go throughout the 
city, and do thou become not cowardly. '^'^ The first person 
singular of the subjunctive is often found in exhortations in 
Homer ; as, tSG)(xac, " let me see ;" XiGGOfi' dvepa tovtov, 
" let me supplicate this man.^^ 

2. The subjunctive is employed in questions of indecis- 
ion and doubt, when a person asks himself or another 
what he is to do. In these cases it occurs, as in the pre- 
vious instances, without dv, and with or without an inter- 
rogative particle. Thus, avOt fjbsvG) fj^erd rolat, tjs did) fie- 
rd a' avTtg, " Shall I wait there with these, or shall I run 
back again unto thee V And again, ri </)c5 ; tI Spco ; " what 
am I to say ? what am I to do .<^" 

3. In a similar way, the subjunctive is used without a 
conjunction, and without dv after povXec in interrogations. 
Thus, (SovXet ?^d6G)ixaL Srjra real -diyG) ri gov; ^^ Dost thou 
wish^ then, that I take hold of thee^ and touch thee in 
ausht V 



136 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

4. The subjunctive is also employed in questions of in- 
dignation, with which a previous command or injunction is 
repeated. Thus, Aristoph. Ran., 1132, AION. Aloxv^Sy 
TrapaLVoJ oot OLoyndv, AI2X. eyo) olcotto) TG)6e\ " Bacch. 
u^schylus^ I admonish you to he silent. iEsch. Am I to he 
silent before this man ?" 

5. In negative propositions, the subjunctive is used after 
\i7] or ov jjiTj for the future ; but, usually, only the first aorist 
subjunctive passive, or the second aorist active and middle. 
Instead of the first aorist active the future is employed. 
Thus, ^sch. S. c. Th. 201, Xevarrjpa Stjiiov 6' ovrt firj (j)vyxi 
liopov, " And hy no means shall any one escape death by sto- 
ning at the hands of the people J^ And again. Soph. Electr, 
42, ov yap oe firj yripa re nal Xpovii) fiatcpG) yvo)a' ovd' 
VTTorrrevaovatv o)d' fjvdLafjisvov, " For they shall not, through 
hoth thine own age and the long lapse of time, recognise, or 
even suspect thee thus attired.''^ This construction probably 
arose from ov dedocfca firj yvojoi, " / am not afraid that 
they will not know thee ;" i. e., they certainly will not know 
thee. This being stronger than ov yvG)oovTaL, this ov firj 
was also prefixed, for the sake of a stronger negation, to 
the future tense. ^ 

6. From this case, however, we must distinguish firj ov 
with the subjunctive, in which also dsdotfca is omitted. 
Thus, Plato, PhcBd., p. 67, B., firj nadapid yap naOapov 
ecpdiTTEoOai (jltj ov 'Beiiirbv ^, " Since I fear it is not lawful 
for an impure person to touch one that is pureP In Latin 
this would be vereor ne nefas sit, which is also a milder ex- 
pression for nefas est. 

2. Subjunctive in dependant propositions. 

1. If the leading verb be in the present or future tense, 
the following verb is put in the subjunctive, with and with- 
out dv. Thus, dXX' iOt, fjbrj ji' epeOt^e, Gacjrepog G)g ks 
verjat, " But go, provoke me not, in order that thou mayst 
return in greater safety than otherwise .^"^ And again, Xe^G> 
Iva elSxfg, " / will speak, that thou mayst knowP 

2. The subjunctive, moreover, is frequently used, although 
the preceding verb be in the perfect tense, when the verb 

1. Passages sometimes occur where ov fxr] appears with the first ao- 
rist subjunctive. These are generally altered by critics, and the aorist 
is converted into a future. But consult MattkicBj G. G. vol. ii., p. 876, 
ed.5. 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 137 

which depends upon the conjunction denotes an action 
that is continued to the present time. Thus, Horn, IL 
5, 127, ax^v^ ^' CLV tol an' ochOaXiiCdv eXov, tj nplv enrjev, 
6(f)p' ev yLva)afiXjg rjiiev -^ebv rjSe nal dvSpa,^' I have, more- 
over, taken away from thy eyes the darkness that was previ- 
ously upon themy in order that thou mayst know well either a 
god or a man,^^ At the time at which Minerva is here rep- 
resented as -speaking, yLvcjanrjg is a consequence still con- 
tinuing of the past action denoted by dx?^vv elXov. 

3. The future is often used instead of the subjunctive. 
In this case the future expresses a state that continues, or 
something that will occur at an indefinite future time. The 
aorist of the subjunctive, on the other hand, indicates a 
transient state occurring in particular cases, and then com- 
pletely concluded. Thus, bpdre firj efcdoTG) rjfj.Cx)v nal 6<p- 
daXficov Kal x^tpojv Serjaec^ " See whether each one of us will 
not need both eyes and earsJ^^ On the contrary, bpdre fjirj 
7:ddG)iz£V, " See whether we shall not have suffered,''^ 

3. Subjunctive after particles of time. 

1. The subjunctive is put with eirriv, STretddv, orav, oiro- 
rav, where the discourse is concerning an action belonging 
to present or future time. Thus, onep nal vvv en rrotovaiv 
ol pdpdapoc PdacXelg, birorav arparoTTedevcjVTat, " Which 
the barbarian monarchs do still, even at the present day, 
lohensver they encamp^ 

2. Sometimes the subjunctive with these particles does 
not express an action frequently repeated at the present 
time, but merely a future action. Thus, oh yap er' aXXrj 
ear at ^a?^7TG)prj eirel dv ov ye rrorfiov e7TL(JTci;jg, " For no 
longer will there be any other solace, when thou shalt have 
encountered thy destined end^ 

4. Subjunctive after conditional particles. 

When in the apodosis, or latter part of the sentence, the 
future, or the imperative, or an indicative is found, then the 
condition is expressed by el with the future, or more mildly 
by edv, rjv, dv (in the Ionic poets et, ne, or altce), with the 
subjunctive, and uncertainty is denoted with the prospect 
of decision. Thus, edv rt e^c^fJ^ev, dojaofiev, " If we have 
anything, we vnll give it,^^ And again, edv rig rtva rcjv 
VTTopx^'^'^^'^ '^OfiGJV fxTj KaXC)q exeiv riyrfrai, ypacpeaOco, " If 

M2 



138 



DEPONENT VERBS. 



any one think any one of the existing laws unsuitable^ let him 
petition against it,'''* 

5. Subjunctive after the relatives og, oarig, olog, &c. 

The subjunctive is employed with dv after relatives when 
the proposition affirms something of present or future time. 
Thus, erreade onot dv rig rjyxjrat, " Follow, whithersoever 
one may lead you^'' And again, ov 6e k' ejcov aTrdvevde 
lidxrjg edeXovra vorjaG) fitfjivd^sLv, ov ol dpmov eaaelrac (j>v- 
yeeiv nvvag rjd' olcdvovg^ " But whomsoever I shall perceive 
inclining to remain apart from the fght^ it shall not bepossi^ 
hie for him to escape the dogs and birds J* 

DEPONENT VERBS. 

1. Deponent verbs may be referred to the class of mid- 
dle ones. 

2. They have the middle form, except in the perfect, 
pluperfect, and third future, or paulo-post-futurum, of which 
the forms are passive. Their perfect has sometimes both 
an active and passive sense ; as, elpyaafiat, from epyd^o- 
jiac. 

3. Some of these verbs have, besides a middle, a passive 
first aorist and first future, the signification of which is pas- 
sive. In the other tenses a middle meaning may generally 
be traced. 

4. The following is a synopsis of their form. 



Moods and Tenses of Deponent Verbs. 






Indie. 


Imper. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


Present, 
Imperfect, 
Perfect, 
Pluperfect, 
1st Aorist M. 
1st Future M. 
1st Aorist P. 
1st Future P. 
3d Future P. 


SEXOfJiai,, ) 
eSEXofiTjv, S 
dEdEy/xaty i 

EdEdEyjLLTJV, ) 
tSE^djbLTjV, 

kdExdrjv, 

dExdr/a-o/mi, 

SEdt^-o/iai, 


Sex-ov, 

SeSe-^o, 
SE^-aty 

dExd-vri, 


-Ot/J,7]V, 

-yfjLEvog, 
eItjv^ 

-0LjLL7/Vj 

'Eirjv, 
-OLjiyv, 

-otuTfV, 


-oftac, 
-y/LLEvog, 

6), 


'Eadatf 

-xOac, 

-aGdat, 
-Eodat, 
-Tjvai, 
-Eodai, 
-Eodat, 


-OfjLEVOg, 

-yfiEvog, 
-dfiEVOCy 

-6/LLEVOg, 

-ojUEVog^ 

-OflEVOQ 



5. A few of these verbs have a second aorist middle ; as, 
Trvvddvoixai, envdoiJLrjv, 



CONTRACTED VERBS. 139 

CONTRACTED VERBS. 

1. Verbs in do), eo), and 6g) correspond entirely, in their 
general formation, to the rules and examples already given 
for verbs in o). 

2. But in the present and imperfect of the active and 
passive forms, where the vowels a, e, o stand immediately 
before the vowels of the flexible endings, there arises in the 
Attic and common language a contraction, the rules for 
which are as follows : 

3. Verbs in do contract ao), ao, and aov into w ; as, r^jt^- 
do), TLfiGJ ; rifidofiev, rtfiojfiev ; TL[xdov(yc, tljjLojgl. Other- 
wise they contract into a ; as, rcfias, rifia. They also 
subscribe t ; as, riixdoifit, rLfXGyfjit ; rcfjidecg, rtfiag. 

4. Verbs in sg) contract es into sl, and eo into ov ; as, 
(piXsSy (piXei ; (piXeofisv, (j)LXovfisv, Otherwise they drop 
e ', as, (ptXsG), ^iXC) ; (j)LX£eig, (piXelg. 

5. Verbs in ow contract o, with a long vowel, into 6) ; as, 
driXoG), drjXG) ; with a short vowel, or ov, into ov ; as, drj- 
Xoere, drjXovrs ; dTjXoovat, drjXovau Otherwise into ot ; 
as, dr^Xd'qg, drjXolg, In the infinitive oeiv is contracted into 
ovv, 

6. Four verbs in do), namely, ^aw, necvdo), dcipdo), and 
Xpaofiat, contract ae into rj, and asL into xj ; as, ^dco, i^^g, 
^Xl, <?^Te, ^'^v ; imperfect e^cov, s^rjg, e^rj. So, also, necvxiv, 

7. Dissyllables in eco are contracted in the imperative 
and infinitive only. Thus we say, rrAgo), irXeoiiev, and not 
tAw, irXovfJiev, 



140 CONTRACTED VERBS. 



^ 



O 
< 



^% 



»3 o o 



<-. «o CO to 



Co ^ 



^ ^SvS^vS ^ -?-?^? 



ft. 



'3 o 



f^i* o to cj" t^r 
g W 








^^ ••.cj'vco 




O CO O 


»Vi 




?8 




^ 




S 




s; 


t; 






g. 


W 


t- 


> 




1— 1 




H 




<'1 




-^ 


P4 


o 


M 




S 


«e CO O 


:^ 




1— ( 


<«r^c«r Co" 




vQ CO ^O 







||J 


CO 


Co CO Co 

? V ? 


i 


g 


^* 


»C3. CO O 

5^ 5? 5:? 


Q CO O 

C-^ d Ol 

Co CO CO 

iS CO O 








20 




^ -. 





3 S 



20 



«3 '3 '3 



3^ 3 ^? i ? li § sF I 

f^ ^ ^ -co -co -co^ »- -®- ^ 

• ^i ^ i-H M CO •-• C« CO 



CONTRACTED VERBS. 141 



'3^ '3 *3 



^iii 



'S" '?> '3" ^ 



,^ '«-> '(J 
^ '3 o o 

<o ^ ^ <i^ 



^ ^ ^ 
g b b 

to v^i v;i 

s 

g to b b 



v^ 5>.^ 



R^ 



^ 



;i) 



'3-'o o *3 '3 «3 



3 3*^ 3'^ S ,| <| 

-3 ^co vo ^3 'g § 



H ' ^ VI 






1 . . ^ ill Ph 



^ ^^.S"- 





H 


f^ 


pr 


> 


iS- 


o 


l-H 




^ 


H 


.V 


'^^'?^'3 


s 


Co 

VCO 




Ph 


c^ 


?^ 5> ?? 


^ 


-e^ 


^? f-^? 


l-H 


N 






.ff.§ 




'3- S o 


1 


J:^ -J^ 0^ 

O c o 


^ 








^ 




«3- o o 




S 5 ^5 

'r ^'^ to 




»-H (^i CQ 



0^ o;,^ 



K -o- >< 



g to b 

to *> ia 
'3 o o 



S- § § g « to 



S . ?^- gr- ??. <i g g 



c6 



^S^'S^'S" 



^3 



o o ? 
-C3 ^^ b 



. . 3*^ ^ ?r ;r 3 

3 3^^ '^ 3 3 "'O 

^e^ b ^«^V b 



142 



p 
p 



p 
12; 
< 



CONTRACTED VERBS. 



«3 5 o '3 

?r ?r ;r f '^ ^ 











CO 






Q^ 






b 




'S 


?-o 


»» 


CO 


o 


Co" 




c«r 


^v 


VCO 


^o 










« 






Q^ 












=i- 






•^s 


-Si 


^J 


o 


o 





^ 






i^ 




^ 




•sT 


*e 


CO 


o 


^ 


ciT" 


c*r 


? 


-co 


^O 



p 
o 
o 

1^ 

> 

< 
O 

P 

o g 





1 










f 


H 






1 






1 






.s'S 


o 


o 




»3 


CO o 


> 


H 


i 


v?3 VCO 


vo 


Q 


Co' 


oT Co" 

VCOVO 


t3 


CO 






C4 






3 



rV] »Q cS O Ja CO O q^ 

> - - ' - ' '^ 

1—1 

w 

< 

P-i '?3^»;S.'o *3 o o 






f" 


? 


o 
















« 






=L 






o 


'» 


'd 


o 


o 


o 


o 


VO 


^a 


VCO 


t) 


=V^. 




t- 


-e- 


^ 


i-i 


« CO 



=1. CO 



« V b ^? 3 § 



1^ -e- >< 



t- ■©- J^ 



CONTRACTED VERBS. 



143 



.^ '^ '^ 



'3 '3 '3 



^3-'S 



^3 i?^*3 



-3-5 



-3l^S 



^ ?^ ^ 




-c3 ^S3 ^o 




?f 




Q:> 




CO 




=^ 


w 


v3'^^3 vS*^ 


H-) 




Ph 


^3 v3 ^3 


HH 


e cS o 


o 




I—I 




H 






<! 


?r 


P^ 






j^ Cy CO 

^3 o o 



!> 

t-H 
< 

o 



'3:'s 



w 








t> 






?^ 


H 




^ 


t 






^ 


»a''s>'3" 


•-> 
pq 


Ph 




^S vco ^O 


;::> 


?r 


</j 






o 



Co Co ^ 

? V b 



' ©« CO 



^3- o o 





o^S^S 




e CO O 
• 1 1 








C» 




^ 








»3-'o 'o 




o o o 


J^ 


^a vS ^o 




-2 


o 


?o 


«3- o o 










CO 


o o o 

-3 vS vS 



o o ? 
« V b 

-H C< CO 



-3 ^3 -3 



^3v3^ 



53 
'2 ^:--^ 



»3'' '3 '3" 

-s ^ 3" 
3 3'? 

1-5 e< CO 



W 



b ,b , 



^ 




y—{ 


H 


^ «^ 


^ 

?« 


'«^»?5.'o 




55 




'^ 


vl\ff- 


E 
^ 


& 





144 REMARKS ON VERBS. 

REMARKS ON VERBS IN g). 
Active Voice, 

1. In the third person plural of the imperative, in Attic, 
the termination -ovrcjv is more usual than -enooav. The 
former occurs even in the Ionic writers ; as, //. 8, 517, 
ayyeXXovTGiv ; Od. 1, 340, 7nv6vrG)v. The form -erGJoav^ 
however, is found in the older Attics occasionally ; as^ 
Thucyd. 1, 34, [ladsTGyaav ; Plat. Leg, 6, p. 759, Z)., <pepe- 

TG)GaV. 

2. The form in 6vrG)v was also used by the Dorians, 
Some Doric tribes omitted the v ; as, ttolovvtg), airooreiXdv- 
TG) ; whence the Latin imperative in the third person plural, 
amanto, docento. 

3. The optative in otfit, particularly in the contracted 
verbs, has also in Attic the termination -otrjv ; as, iroLOiTjVy 
(ptXoLTjv, 6tepG)TG)r]v, &c. This form oCrjv is also found 
in Ionic and Doric writers. The termination in -oirjv oc- 
curs less frequently in the barytone verbs than in the con- 
tracted ones ; yet still we have, in Attic, dcadaXotrjv, 0a- 
voiTjv, nenotdotrjy &;c. 

4. In some perfects in -rjtca the lonians rejected the let- 
ters 7]fc in the dual and plural, not, however, in the singu- 
lar : as, reOvarov, reOvafiev, redvare, redvdat. Besides 
redvrjfca and earrjica, the form I3e67]fca is also syncopated 
in this way by the Attic writers ; as, pedafiev, j3e6dac, &c. 

5. The primitive form of the pluperfect, which occurs in 
Homer and Herodotus, was -ea, in the third person -ee ; 
as, eyeyovee, d7To6€6rjfC£e. Hence arose, on the one hand, 
the Doric form -eia ; as, ovvayayox^icb, and, on the other, by 
contraction, the Attic form -7/ in the first person ; as, ^d?/. 

6. Instead of the termination -eiGav for the pluperfect, 
the form eaav is almost universal in Ionic and Attic ; as, 
dfcrjfcoeoav, eyeyoveoav. 

7. Instead of the form 'Otfit, in the first aorist of the op- 
tative, the Attics chiefly use the primitive iEolic form -eca, 
'Stag, -618, after the example of the lonians and Dorians, 
but only in the second and third persons singular and third 
person plural. 



REMARKS ON VERBS. 145 



Passive Voice, 

1. In the perfect optative the l is subscribed under the ?/ 
or G) ; as, rerifirjfirjv, rertfixjo, rertijifjTO, Slc. Instead of 
fiefiv^jfjirjv, KEfCT'diirjv, &c., there was another form with cp. 
It seems, therefore, as if to the roots fiefivrj-, fcsfcr?]', the 
form of the optative present had been appended, fiefjivrjoiro, 
fC€KT7j0LT0, whence came iiefiveijdTO and KSicreGiTO, con- 
tracted fiefivcbro. So iieiivoLo [iieiiv(x>o) is found in Xen. 
Anab, 1, 7, 5. 

2. The perfect subjunctive is exactly like the present of 
the same mood, -ojfiaL, -xj, -rjrat ; as, Tre^^Aw/zai, Tre(pL?i'q, 
TTecpiXriTac. But it seldom occurs, and, instead of it, the 
circumlocution uE^iXriiievog o) is used. 

3. In the third person plural of the perfect and pluper- 
fect, the lonians and Dorians change the v before rac and 
TO into a, in which case the original aspirated consonant 
again enters before the a ; as, reSdcparaL^ from reOafifiaL 
(d-dnro)), for rsdaiifxevot sl(7t ; Kenpvcparai^ from Kefcpviifiac 
{fcpvTTTG)), for icefcpvfxfisvot eloL So, also, nareiXixaTo for 
KaretXtyfievoc fjaav ; eaeadxctTO for oeoayixevoi fjaav. 

4. If an (7, arising from the Unguals d, 6, r, ^, precedes 
the termination of the perfect passive -fiat, -oac, -rai, it is 
changed into 6 before the termination -arat, -aro. Thus, 
eGfcevddaro for eoKevaaiievoi rjaav, from anevd^o) ; eoroXi' 
daro for koroXtoiievoi fjcrav, from crroA/^o). 

5. In a similar way, the termination -avrai of the per- 
fect is changed into -earat ; as, dvaTTeTTTearac for dvairsTT' 
ravrai ; sTTeiretpeaTO for erreTrsLpavro. 

6. In the same way v, in the third person of the present 
and aorist, optative passive and middle, of the imperfect 
passive and middle, and even of the present, in some 
words, is changed into a. In the optative this is very 
frequent, even in the Attic poets ; as, nevdoiaro, dnocpepot- 
aro, aladavoiaro, for ttevOolvto, &c. In the imperfect we 
find eneipdjaro for eneipiovTO ; in the second aorist, dncKe- 
0.T0 for dmnovro ; diecpdapearo for 6iE(f)ddpovro. In the 
present we have, in Herodotus, tciarac, dvvearai. 

N 



146 DIALECTS OF VERBS. 

DIALECTS OF VERBS IN o). 

Active. 

1. In the old Homeric language, and generally in the 
Ionic and Doric dialects, the termination onov is annexed 
to the historical tenses of the indicative active, passive, 
and middle. In barytones, and those whose characteristic 
is e, ei, or ?/, this termination precedes e in the imperfect 
and second aorist ; as, Trefirreaice for enefine ; (jxiveafcrj for 
£(pdv7]. Where two €'s come together, one is often re- 
jected ; as, TTwAficr/cero for sTTGyXeero ; naXeoKero for EKa- 
Xeero. If a is the radical vowel, then a comes before the 
termination ; as, eaotceg for stag ; avdrjaaofcs for avdrjos. 
These forms are never mere imperfects or aorists, but have 
always the force of an action repeated in past time. The 
frequentatives in Gfccj are probably derived from this source. 
The augment is usually, but not always, wanting. 

2. The termination etg (second person singular present) 
and ecv (infinitive) were, in Doric, sorfietimes eg and ev re- 
spectively ; as, ovpcoSeg for GvpL^etg ; avpiadev for Gvpt- 

3. In verbs pure in clg) the ^Eolians pronounced sep- 
arately the i subscribed in the second and third persons 
singular of the present ; as, poaig, ysXai, for l3oag, yeXa, 

4. The Dorians make the first person plural of all tenses 
end in fjisg instead of fiev ; as, epiodoiieg for epc^ofiev ; ddc" 
Kovfjisg for aStKOVfxev ; dedoLKafxeg for deSoctcafisv, 

5. The third person plural in -gl ends in Doric in -tl : 
and before this final syllable, instead of the long vowel or 
diphthong in the barytones, the short vowel with v is placed, 
in a manner analogous to the dative plural of the third de- 
clension, and to the participles in ag ; as, dvarcXEHovri for 
dvanXenovGc ; iioxOi^ovri for iioxBi^ovGi. From this ter- 
mination comes the Latin termination in nt. In the com- 
mon dialect, and afterward in the Alexandrian, from -avn 
in the perfect arose the termination -av ; as, sopyav, mcb- 
pifcav. 

6. In Doric, particularly, verbs pure in doj have, after 
contraction, rj for a ; as, (pocryg for (poirag. The Attics 
retain this in the verbs ^aw, Treivdo), dttpdo), and xp^ofiac. 
In the imperfect the Dorians contract as, not into a, but into 
;; ; as, e(f>0LTr], erpvTTTj. 



DIALECTS OF VERBS. 147 

7. The termination ov of the third person plural of the 
imperfect and second aorist was in some of the common 
dialects -oaav, and remained also in the Alexandrian dia- 
lect ; as, E(Jxd^oGav. This is particularly the case in the 
Greek version of the Old Testament, and also in the New. 

8. The second person in -Tjg, both in the subjunctive and 
indicative, was often lengthened in the old language by the 
addition of the syllable da, which has remained in the 
j^olic, Doric, Ionic, and in some words in the Attic dialect. 
Thus we find eOsXrjoda for edeX%ig. In Attic, fioOa for 7]^ ; 
e(f>7jada for £(j)7]g ; olaOa for ol(5ag, 

9. The tliird person singular of the subjunctive in Ionic 
received the addition of the syllable at ; as, eXdi;ioi for eX- 
drj ; XddxjOi for Aa6^, &Lc. This gl the Dorians changed 
into Ti \ as, edeXi^jrc. 

10. In the old poets, the subjunctive active, if the penult 
be long, has, for the most part, in the first and second per- 
sons plural, the short vowel instead of the long one, name- 
ly, for 6). Thus we have, //. 2, 72, 'dodprj^oiiev ; Od. 15, 
297, epv^ofiev ; //. 21, 443, dTToXvaofjiev, &c. These must 
not be mistaken for futures. 

11. In the infinitive, instead of the form ecv and elv, the 
termination fievat, and shortened jiev, was frequently used 
in the old language, as, for example, by Homer and He- 
siod, and in the iEolic and Doric dialects. Thus, eXOefie- 
vat and kXOeiiev for eXOeiv ; mveixsvat for mvecv ; ovrd- 
liEV for ovrav, &c. 

12. Hence, from such a form as rvTrrsfjiev, we obtain, 
by syncope, the Ionic rvrrreev, and from this latter, by era- 
sis, the Attic TV7TTSLV. From rvnresv comes also, by con- 
traction, the Doric rvrcrev, 

13. In the participle, the Dorians used in the feminine, 
instead of ovaa, the form oioa, not only in the present, as, 
KaxXd^oLGa, exotaa, but also in the second aorist ; as, Aa- 
dolaa, XiTTolaa. They employed also the form evoa in 
verbs pure for eovaa ; as, ^arevaat for ^TjrovGac ; yeXevaa 
for yeXoJaa, Slc. The iEolians and some Dorians used 
for the circumflexed ovoa the form waa ; as, Xcnojaac, 
Hence arose the Laconian form oja ; as, natddcjav for Trac- 

14. The iEolians formed the termination of the partici- 
ples 'idv and cov in etg, because they formed the verbs in 
£w and do) in ruiL ; thus they said, bpeig^ arocxsig, from 
oprjfXL, aToCx^juc. 



148 DIALECTS OF VERBS. 

15. The termination of the first aorist active, af, aacL, 
av, was, in Doric, aig, aioa ; as, ravvoac^, pciljaig, reXe- 
oatg, &c. 

16. Instead of (oaav in the third person plural of the im- 
perative, the termination cjv was very much used in Ionic, 
Doric, and particularly Attic ; as, i:neo6o)v, Xe^dcdcov, fia^ 
Xe(7dG)v, &c. 

Passive, 

1. In verbs pure an e is inserted before eat, which the 
Ionic prose writers preserve unchanged ; as, dLaipeeac, (po- 
6££at. 

2. The termination so, which in the Attic dialect was 
contracted into ov, is in Doric, and sometimes in Ionic, 
contracted into ev ; as, enXev, iJidx^v, efceXev, 

3. Instead of the termination of the first person plural in 
lieda, the ^olians said [leOev ; as, rvTrrdfjisdev, 

4. Instead of rjv in the first person singular of the second 
aorist, av is found ; as, ervrrav, Theocr. 4, 53. In the first 
person plural of the aorists the Dorians said rifieg for Tjiiev ; 
as, EKXLvdrjfieg. 

5. In the third person plural of the aorists the iEolians 
and Dorians said sv for rjaav ; as was the case, also, in the 
old Ionic. Thus we have e(l)cX7]6ev, IL 2, 668 ; (fidveVj 
Find, O/. 10, 101. 

6. The infinitive of the aorists is in Doric -ruiev for -rivaty 
abbreviated from the old form in -rjfisvai, which form is fre- 
quent, particularly in Homer ; as, dpidfir^drifisvac, IL 2, 
124; d[iocG)Ori[ievat, IL 1, 187. 

Middle. 

1. The form ao of the second person, first aorist middle, 
occurs frequently in the Ionic and Doric writers ; as, IL 5, 
88, eyeivao; Theocrit, 29, 18, eOrjfcao. 

2. Hence arose, in the Syracusan dialect, the form -a, 
the being omitted ; as, (f)VGdvTeg for (l)vodovreg, Theocr, 
4, 28. 

3. In the third person of the optative, first aorist middle, 
-ataro for -aivro is very frequent in the Ionic and Attic 
poets; as, Od, 1, 164, dprjaaiaro ; Herod. 3, 75, dvajcrri- 
oaiaro ; ^schyL Pers. 360, etcacjaaiaro^ &c. 



VERBS. 149 

VERBS IN fit, 

1. Verbs in fit are formed from verbs of the third conju- 
gation in do), eo), do), and vo), 

1. By prefixing the reduplication with L 

2. By changing g) into [jlc, 

3. By lengthening the penult. 

2. In this way are formed the following : 



KjrrjfjiC, 


from 


GTaO), 


riSriiiiy 


<c 


t?ea). 


dc6o)fic, 


(( 


doG). 


del/cvviic, 


(( 


dstfCVVG) 



3. If the verb begin with a vowel, with ttt or or, then 
I aspirated is alone prefixed ; as, eo), L7][xt ; Trrao), InrTjut, 
This is called the Improper Reduplication, 

4. The reduplication takes place in the present and im- 
perfect merely. 

5. Verbs in vfic have no reduplication ; neither is it found 
in those verbs in fit which are formed from verbs of three 
syllables ; as, fcpefivdoj, KpefivrjiJic, It is also wanting in 
<brjfjLt from (pdo), 

6. Verbs in jjH have only three tenses of that form, name- 
ly, the present, imperfect, and second aorist. They take 
the other tenses from verbs in 6). Thus, didojfiL makes dco- 
(TO) and dedojKa from 66g). 

7. Verbs in vfit have no second aorist, nor the optative 
or subjunctive mood. When these moods are needed they 
are borrowed from forms in vco, 

8. Verbs in fjic have no second future, second aorist pas- 
sive, nor perfect middle. 

1. Old form -^tdrifit^ changed to rWrjiiLy in order to prevent an aspi- 
rate from beginning two successive syllables. 

N2 



150 



VERB. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 
Moods and Tenses, 



Present, 



Imperfect, 



■i 



Indie 


Imper. 


Opt. 


Subj, 


Infin. 


Part. 


lGT-7]/LLLy 
Ttd-rjfliy 

6iS-(x)fJ.Ly 

deinv-vfjLLy 


-adty 

'ETty 

-Odiy 

'Vdly 


-atrjv, 

-ELTjVy 

-oirjVy 


-6>, 
-W, 


-Evai, 
'Ovat, 
-vvaty 


-aCy 
-etc, 
'ovc, 
'VC' 


LGTTjVy 

kridr}Vy 
ediScovy 
kSecfcvvVy 


> The rest like the present 


EGTTJVy 

edrjVy 
eSoVy 


GtTjdiy GTairjVy 
d-ec, -d-EtTjVy 
66c, doirjVy 


Gt6, 

'&6y 

66, 


GTTJVaiy 

'&ELvaty 
6ovvaty 


Grdc, 
'^eic, 
6ovc. 



2(1 Aorist, 



The other tenses are regularly formed from verbs in (o 
Thus : 



1st Future, 



1st Aorist, 



Perfect, 



Indie. . 


Imper. 


Opt. 


SQbj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


GTrjG-Cdy 
'&r)G'iJy 

66g-o), 
6ei$-g), 

EGTTjGa, 

Edrjica, 
E6cdiiay 

E6EL^ay 

'iGTr)K-ay 

TEdsiK-ay 

6e6o)K-ay 

6E6EtX-CL, 


GTrJG-OV, 

6eI^-ov, 

"Ey 

'Sy 

-ey 


'Oifli, 
'OlfZt, 
-OtflL, 
-Oilli, 

-aifJiL, 

'OLfZt, 
-OljUt, 

-OlfZCy 

-OL/Llty 


'Q, 

-W, 
-G), 


-eiVy 
-EiV, 

-eiv, 
-ecv, 

-at, 

"Evai, 
'ivaif 
'EvaCy 
'Evaiy 


'QVy 

"CJV, 

-aCy 

-ac^ 

'6c, 
-6c, 
-6c, 



Pluperfect. 
karrjKELv ®r elgt'^keiv^ ETEdEiKELv, e6e66keiv, kdEdelxsiv, 



Numbers and Persons^ 






Pre 


SENT. 






Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural 




iGT-nji-h VCy V(^h 

rW-rjflty TIC, 7]Giy 

6l6'DflLy UC, 0)GC, . 

deUv-vfit^ Vf, vac. 


drov^ 

ETOVy 

orov^ 


arovy 

ETOV, 
OTOV, 
VTOV. 


QjLtEv, arCf 

EfJLEV, ETE, 
OflEV, OTE, 
VJLlEVf VTEf 


eiGi, 

OVGl 
VGl, 



VERB. 



151 



Singular, 
kdeiKv-vVy I'f, V, 






Singular. 

tOCy 



Imperfect. 

Dual, 

arovy drrjVy 
sTov, eryVf 

OTOV, OTTJVy 

VTOVy VTTJVy 



Second Aorist. 
Dual. 

TjTOVy 7)T7JV, 

erov, erriv, 

OrOVy OTTJV, 



Plural. 



afiev, 


aT€j 


acavy 


efiev, 


ere, 


eaav, 


o/xeVf 


0T€, 


oaavy 


Vfievy 


VTEy 


vcav. 



Plural. 

7]jLt£Vy 7]T£, TJCaVf 

EfieVy ere, eGav, 

ofcevy OTEy oaav* 



Singular. 
lGTa-6iy 
rWe-Tiy 
6c6o-6l, 
deiKvv-dcy 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Dual. 



TOV, 



TCOVy 



Plural. 
TCy TQGav, 





Second Aorist* 




Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural 


OeCy BeTOy 
66^y doTo), 


GTTJTOVy GTTjrCiVy 

Oerov, dercjVy 

SoTOVy doTUV,' 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 


GT^TBj GTTjTCdGaV, 

OeTCj dhoGaVy 
doTE, SoTcjGav. 


Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


iGTat'TjVy \ 

rWei-TjVy \ vCi V 

6l60L-1JVy ) 


VTOVy TjTTjV 

Second Aorist. 


TJfXEVy TfTE, TlGaVy afid 

tv. 


Singular. 


Dual 


Plural 


GTat'TJVy J 


TjTOVy TJTTJVi 


7}/isv, TfTSy ijaavy and 

ev. 



152 



VERB. 



Singular, 
Sid-cjy €)g, cj, 



Singular, 

GTu, Grygy Gry, 
Ouy 6yg, 6y, 
Scjf d(pg^ duy 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Dual. Plural. 



TjTOVy rjTOVy 


0)fJ,EV, TjTEy 


UGtf 


7)T0Vy rjTOVy 


(JflEV, 7JTE, 


CJGCy 


UTOVj 0)TOV, 


iOflEVy CJTEy 


UGi. 


Second Aorist. 






Dual. 


Plural. 




GTTjTOVf GTJJTOVy 
drJTOV, OfJTOV, 
SuTOVy 6u)T0Vy 


GTtbflEV, GTTJTEy 
dcJfLEVy OyTEy 
dcJfZEV, SuTEy 


GTiJGlf 

duGLy 

6u>GL, 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

TiOivat. Sidovac, 



dstKvvvai, 







Second Aorist. 




GTTJVai. 




'&Eivat. 


dovvau 








PARTICIPLES. 






Present. 






Second Aorist. 




iGT-dg, 
Tid-eigy 
Std'Ovgy 
deiKv-vg, 


dGay 

ELGtty 
OVGUy 
VGUy 


dPy 
EVy 
OVy 

vv. 






(TTttf, GTaGGy 
-d-ELgy ^ElGtty 

dovgy dovGay 


GTaVf 

MVy 

66v, 



PASSIVE VOICE. 
The Moods and Tenses. 



Present, 



Imperfect, 



■i 



Indie. 


Imp, 


Opt. 


Subj. 


Inf. 


Part. 


lGT-a/J.aCy 

rW-EjiLaiy 
did-ofiaiy 

dELKV-V/LCaLy 


-aGOy 

-EGOy 
-OGOy 
-VGOy 


-atfiyvy 

'EifJLrjVy 
-OtfJ,7]Vy 


-cofiaty 
-ufxaty 
-cjfiatj 


-aGdaty 
-EGdaiy 
-oGdaty 
'VGdai, 


-afiEVogy 

-EfjLEVOgy 
-OjLtEVOgy 

-vfiEvog. 


LGrdfiriVy 

ETtdeflTJVy 

kdidofiyvy 
hdELKvvfirjVy 


\ The rest like the present. 



VERB. 



153 



Tenses formed from Verbs in w. 



Perfect, 



Plup., 



3d Fut. 



1st Aor. 



1st Fut. 





Indie. 


Imp. 


Opt. 


Subj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


1 


^GT-afiai, 
red-eifiaif 
6e6-o/LLat, 
ded-ELyfiai^ 


-aero, 

'ELGOy 
-OGOj 


-aifirjv, 

-eLfl7]V, 
-OlllTjV, 


-(jfxat, 
-cJfiaLy 
-ufiaL, 


-dGdac, 

-ELGdaLy 

-oGdaCy 

'ELxOcLh 


-a/j,£vog, 

-EtflEVOg, 

-OfiEvogy 
-EcyfiEvog. 


\ 


eord/LLTjVf 
kredeliirjv, 
kdEdofnjVy 
kSESEcyfirjv, 


\ The rest like the perfect. 


1 


EGTdG-Ojiat, 

TEdeLG-ofiai, 
SEdoG-ofiai, 




-0LjLL7]V, 
'Ol/LLTJV, 
-OljLLTJVj 




-EGdac, 
'EGdat, 
-EGdat, 


-ofiEVog, 
-SfiEvogy 

-OfjLEVOg. 


! 


EGrddijv, 

ETEdrjV, 

kdodrjVy 
eSelxOt^v, 


Grdd-TJTL, 

red-rjTL, 

d6d-7]TL, 


-ELTjV, 
-EtrjV, 
-ELTJVy 




'Tjvac, 

-Tjvaty 

-yvaty 

SeLxd-vvaL, 


-Ecgy 
-Ecg, 
-Etg, 
-Etg. 


\ 


GTadTjG-Ofiai, 
Tedf/G-oiiaL, 
doOr^G-oftat, 
dELxdrjG-Ofiai, 


. . . 


-ollXTjV, 

-ocfiyv, 

-OtflTjV, 


• • 


-EGOac, 
-EGdai, 
-EGdaCy 
-EGdat, 


-OjLLEVOgy 

-ofXEVog, 
-ofiEvogy 
-Ofievog. 



Singular. 



Numbers and Persons, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
Dual. 



LGTa- -^ 

tlBe- 9 

dido- \l^^h<y(^h'rO'f', 

dELKvv- y 




fiEdoVy adov, odovy 

Imperfect. 
Singular Dual. 

fieOoVy adovy cdrfv, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Singular. Dual. 

GOy Gdoy cdov, GdcjVy 



X 



iGTa- 
etlOe- . 

kSido- I l^nv, <^0, TO, 

kdELKVV' 



Plural, 
fieda, cde, vrau 

Plural, 
fieda, ade, vTO, 

Plural, 
adsy adoGav, 



154 



VERB. 





OPTATIVE MOOD. 




^ 


Present. 




1 


Singular, Dual. 


Plural 


1 


LGTaU \ 






'T 


Tidei- >jLl7iVy 0, TO, 

dtdol- ) 


jnedov, GdoVf cdrjv, 


fxeda, cdey 


VTO, 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 


^ 




Present. 






Singular. Dual. 


Plural 




iGT-iJfiaLj y, yraL, 
Tid-C)/LLatj y, yraif 
did-u)juaCf G>, G)Tatj 


u/LtedoVf tjgOoVj tjgOov^ 
^fiedovj fiGdov, 7jg6ov, 
LOjiedoVy cogOov, cogOov, 


6jue6a, TJGOe, 
ufieday (jGOcy 


iJVTaiy 
{bvraif 
uvrai. 


INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 




Present. 


Present. 




iGTaGdaty 
TiOeGdaiy 
SidoGdat, 
deiKVVGdat. 




iGrdfiev-oCy x 
TtOefzev-oCy f 
SidojueV'Og, t " 
6einvvaev-og, * 


OP, 



MIDDLE VOICE. 
The Moods and Tenses, 

The present and imperfect are the same as in the pas- 
sive. 

The Second Aorist. 



Indie. 


Imp. 


Opt. 


Subj. 


iGTUjUyVy 
kdejLLTJVy 


GTdGO, 
-^EGOy 

doGO, 


GTat/btrjVy 
■S-eifirjVy 

doL/XTJVf 


Grtj/Ltaty 
■&C)fj,aLy 



1st Aorist, 



1st Future, 



GraGdac, 

i^eGdai, 

doGdaLj 



Tenses formed from Verbs in (O. 



€GT7)GUfL7]V, 

kOrjicd/Liyv, 

kdcJKUflTjVy 

kdei^dfirjv, 

GTT/G-Ofiat, 

■&7iG-ofxac^ 
SuG-Ofiac, 
Ssi^-OfiaCj 



GTa/Lievogy 
dojuevog. 



GTrjG-ai, 


-al/x7]v, 


'Ofiaij 


-aGdat, 


-djxevocy 














-alfiTiVy 

> 'OL/lTjV, 
\ 


-ufiaty 


-acdai, 

'EGdat, 


'dfievoc. 
-ofievog. 



VERB. 



155 



Singular, 

kard- \ 

kde- > /Z7?v, CO, rOj 

kdo- ) 



Singular. 



Numbers and Persons. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Second Aorist. 
Dual. 

fzedoVf adovy gBtjv, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Second Aorist. 

Dual. 



ra- \ 

E' > (70, 

6- ) 



era- 
66- 



GdCJy 



Singular. 



rcu- ^ 
et' > 
oi- ) 



(JTOl- 

^et' ^ /jLtjv, Oj to, 
doi- 



aSov, (t6o)v, 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 

Second Aorist. 

Dual. 

fiedov, cBov, adrjv, 



PluraL 



Plural, 
cde, cdcjaav. 



Plural. 

fisda, aSe, vto. 



Singular. 

GT-C)jxai, y, yrai, 
•&-G)fiai, Tj, yrai, 
6-(jfLat, G), (jrat, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 

Dual. PluraL 

ufiedov, fjoOov, tjgOov, \ ufzeda, rjoBe, cjvrai, 

ufiedov, fjcdov, TJGdov, lojueOa, rjoBs, (ovrac, 

6fj,eBov, cogBov, qgBov, \ QfieBa, (ogBe, ibvTai, 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Second Aorist. 

GTCLGBat, 

-d-EGBat, 
doGBat. 



PARTICIPLE. 

Second Aorist. 

GTa- \ 

-&£- > fzevoc, iihrj, ftevov. 

66- ) 



^ 



156 REMARKS ON VERBS. 

FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

The Imperfect 
is formed from the present by prefixing the augment and 
changing iii into v ; as, rldrjfit, ertdrjv. 

The Second Aorist 
is formed from the imperfect by dropping the reduplication ; 
as, eridrjv, edrjv ; or by changing the improper reduplication 
into the augment ; as, Igttjv, earrjv. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

The Present 

is formed from the present active by shortening the penult 
and changing [ic into fiat ; as, cGTrjfjiL, lardiiai. 

The Imperfect 

is formed from the present by prefixing the augment and 
changing iiau into [iriv ; as, rideiiai, eTtde[irjv, 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

The Second Aorist 

is formed from the imperfect by dropping the reduplication ; 
as, STLdefJirjv, edefjirjv ; lardfj^rjv, eordfirjv. 

REMARKS ON VERBS IN fiL 

1. The number of verbs in fxt, in the Attic and common 
dialects, is very small, and among these few are only four 
which have a complete conjugation peculiar to themselves, 
namely, riQrjiu, LrjjjiL, lorrnii, and dLdojfic. 

2. These verbs were chiefly used in the ^Eolo-Doric 
dialect ; and in the writers of that dialect verbs very fre- 
quently occur in the form ixc, which in other dialects termi- 
nate in do), SO) ; as, viicrjiu, (f>6p7jfxL, for VLfcdo), (popeo). 

3. These forms in fxc are to be regarded as among the 



REMARKS ON VERBS. 157 

oldest in the language, and occur frequently in the poems 
of Homer and Hesiod. After the dialects arose, the Ionic 
and Attic retained some of these verbs, namely, those above 
given (§ 1) and those in vfit, instead of which they very 
seldom use the forms in vg). The iEolic, however, which 
retained the most of the ancient language, continued to use 
the greater part of them. 

4. Historically considered, then, the verb in [it must have 
been at least as old as those in o), and of more extensive 
use than appears in the works which have come down 
to us. 

5. The first aorists in na, of verbs in fit, are thought to 
have been originally perfects, and to have been subsequent- 
ly used as aorists, when a peculiar form was introduced for 
the perfect. 

6. The aorists in fca have not the rest of the moods after 
the indicative ; and, therefore, in giving the moods and 
tenses, we cannot say edrjfca, i^fcov, '^rjnacfjic, &c., but must 
pass to the second aorist ; as, eOrjna, ^eg, '&SLrjv, &;c. 

7. In Ionic and Doric the forms eo), aw, 6g), often occur 
in the present and imperfect singular, with the reduplication ; 
as, Tidelg, eTnrtdelg, dcdolg, sdidovg, Slc. 

8. In the third person plural the form dat is used by the 
Attics, which occurs also frequently in Ionic, and hence is 
called Ionic ; as, rtdedai, dtdodai, &c. 

9. The first aorist in ica occurs in good writers almost 
exclusively in the singular and in the third person plural. 
In the rest of the persons the second aorist is more used, 
which, again, hardly ever occurs in the singular. 

10. The optative present and second aorist, as in the 
aorist passive of verbs in co, have in the plural, in the 
poets as well as prose writers, more commonly elfjiEV, elre, 
F.lev ; aljiev, aire, dlev ; olfiev, olre, olev ; instead of slrjiisv, 
ELTjre, &c. 

11. In the verb tarrjfjit, the perfect, pluperfect, and sec- 
ond aorist have an intransitive meaning, '' to stand ,*" the 
rest of the tenses a transitive one, " to place,^^ Thus, ea- 
TTjfca signifies " / stand ;" elGrrjfcetv, " I was standing,''^ 
But eGrrjv, " / stood,^^ as a transient action. 

12. The form eardfca, which is found in the common 
grammars, occurs in later writers only, and in a transitive 
sense, " / have placed.^'' The Doric form eordiia^ with the 
long penult, is distinct from this. 





158 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS IN fic 

may be divided into three classes, each containing thfee 
verbs. 

I. From eo) are derived eific, to be ; elfit and trjiit, to go, 

II. From eo) are derived ltjijH, to send ; fjixac, to sit ; elfjiat, 
to clothe one^s self. 

III. Kelfjiai, to lie down ; coTjfJH, to know ; (prjfit^ to say, 

CLASS I. 

1. EfcjWt, to be, 

has been before conjugated, as it is used in some of its tenses 
as an auxiliary to the passive voice of verbs in o). 

2. "Elfjit, to go, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Singular. Dual. Plural, 

eltii, elg or el, elat. I Irov, Irov. \ ^^'''' T"' "'^'' ''"' ^ 

Imperfect. 
Tjeiv, TjELgy TiEL. \ tjeItov, 7jeiT7)v. \ ysifiev, rjeLTs, yetaav. 

Future, elao). First Aorist, elaa. Perfect, eiKa, 

Pluperfect. 
EtK-etv, etg, et. \ ecrov, eirrjv. | ci^ev, etre, Btaav. 

Second Aorist. 
lov, leg, le. \ lerov, ieTTjv. \ lo[ieVy ure, iov, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Idc or elf Ircj. | ctov, Itcov. | Ire^ iTQcav. 

Second Aorist. 
le, ieroi, \ lerov, leruv. | cere, ieraaav. 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 159 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 

lotfiLf iotg, lot. I loLTOv, iocTTjv. I loLfxeVf ioLT€f locev. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Second Aorist. 

Icjf ly^f ly. I irjTOVf IrjTOV. \ IcofieVj IrjTej luat. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Second Aorist. 

levaL. I l(^v, iovca, l6v» 

REMARKS. 

1. The Attics regularly use the present tense of eIixl in 
a future sense, " / will go^ This usage occurs also in 
Ionic. The form elaoiiai occurs in Attic only as the future 
of olda, 

2. The form el is more used in Attic than elg. Homer 
has also elada, II. 10, 450, &c. 

3. In the imperative, the form IQi is more used than el. 
For iTG)aav we have occasionally, in Attic, ltg)v. 

4. The imperfect rieiv is nothing more than the form elv 
with 7/ as a prefix, analogous to which are the forms 7]ei' 
deiv and TJ'iov. The form TJ'ia, Attic ^a, also occurs, and is 
erroneously regarded by some as the perfect middle, just 
as TJetv is sometimes miscalled the pluperfect middle. The 
best grammarians regard rjla as merely an Ionic form for 
TJELV ; just as in Tidrjfj,L, the Ionic erldea is the same as 
eridrjv ; and in eifjLC, I am, the Ionic rja is the same as rjv. 

5. The form rja never has the signification of the perfect, 
and TJeiv never that of the pluperfect ; but both forms agree 
in this respect, and designate generally a time past, either 
absolutely, or with reference to another time ; that is, they 
stand for the aorist and imperfect. 

6. From what has been said respecting TJecv, it will be 
seen at once how erroneous it is to subscribe the t under 
the 7/. This mistake arose from the tense in question 
being regarded as a pluperfect, and deduced from ^a. In 



IGO IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Z/a the subscript c is correct, since this form is contracted 
from TJ'ia, 

7. We have called Icjv the second aorist participle, 
since it follows the analogy of the aorist participle in hav- 
ing the accent on the ending. Others make it a present 
participle. 

3. "Irjfjic, to go. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Singular, Dual. Plural. 

li]/iij i7]r^ IrjGU I lerovy lerov. j Zf/^ev, lerSy lelai. 

Imperfect. 

ieaav. 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

ieir]. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present. 

Uvai. I lelg, Uvrog. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 

U'/iaif aaty rai. \ fiedovy cOoVy gOov. \ iieOa, ode^ vrai. 

Imperfect. 
U'lirjv, CO, TO. I /jleOoVj cOoVy cOtjv. | fisda, odsy vto, 

IMPERATIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present, 

leGOy UgOo). • \ UfMev-o^y i], ov. 

INFINITIVE. 

leGdau 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 161 

CLASS II. 
1. ''IfJi^t, to send, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Singular, Dual, Plural. 

It^/lll, cij^j Iriai. \ terovy lerov. \ csfcevy leTe, lelai. 

Imperfect. 
iTjVf iTj^, cjj. I IsTOVy leTTjv. \ UixEVj Uts, Icaav. 

First Future. 
^(7-cj, etCf ei. I eroVf etov. \ o/ievj ere, ovgl. 

First Aorist. Perfect. Pluperfect. 

^Ka. I eha, \ elKELv, 

Second Aorist. 
J7V, $f, ij. I ETOV, eT7]v. I i/ievy ^re, taav, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
Udiy Utq. I Utov, IsTCJV. I lire, Uroiuav. 

Second Aorist. 
^f, Itu, I 'iTOVy ^Tcov, I Ire, kTuaav. 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

ki-nvy VCi V' I Vfov, ^TTiv. I Tjiiev, jyre, Tjaav, 

First Future. Perfect. 

TjaOLflL I elKOtflL 

Second Aorist. 
d'TjVy 7jCi n- I TiToVy Tirrjv. I riiiEVy ^re, ricrav* 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

iCiy ly^y iy. I IrjToVy IrjTOv, | tc5//ev, /^re, iuai, 

02 



162 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



Perfect. 
Singular. Dual, Plural. 

bIk-cj, yCi V* I V^ov^ t^tov, \ oifievy rjrey oGU 

Second Aorist. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present* First Future. 

UvaL» I TjGELV. 



Perfect. 
elKEvai, 



Second Aorist. 
elvac* 



PARTICIPLES. 
Present. First Futurb. 

ietcy lecaa, lev. | TJaoVj rjaovaay ^aov» 

Perfect. Second Aorist. 

ecKug, eiKvla, eiKog. \ elg, elaa, h/. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Dual. 

fzedovy adov, adov. 

Imperfect. 

fjtedovj adovy gOjjv. 

Perfect. 
fisOov, adovy adov. 

Pluperfect. 
fiedoV) cdoVf cdTjv. 

First Aorist. 
iSriv and dOriv. 



Singular, 
U'fiaiy aacy rat. 



li-fl7lVj GO, TO. 

el'fiaty Gai, rat. 

el-firiVy GOy TO. 

P. P. Future. 
eiGOfiau 



Plural. 

fisBay Gdsy vrat, 

fiedtty GdCy VTO, 

fjiedtty odcy vTai. 

fisday GdCy VTO, 

First Future. 
i6?JG0/iai, 



IRREGULAR OR DEi^ECTIVE VERBS. 163 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

Present and imperfect like the Passive.^ 

First Aorist. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 

^K'djLLTjv, Of aro, \ dfieOoVf aadoVj dodrjv. | d/ie6aj aaOe, avro. 

First Future. 
P]G-ofjLatf £?, ETai. I ofiedoVf eadoVj eaOov. \ SfteOaj eads, ovrai. 

Second Aorist. 
fyrjVj iaoj Itfo. I efiedovj eadoVf 'iadrjv. \ ^fXEda, lode, ivro. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Perfect. 
Btao, elado). | eladov, scgOov. \ elGde, eladoaav. 

Second Aorist. 
ijo and ov, IgOg). \ Movy eGdov. | ^aOe, '^aOaaav, 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 

First Future. 
yGot'/MTjVj 0, TO, I fjiedov, ffdov, gOtiv. I [leda, cOe, vto. 

Second Aorist. 
^l-firfVf 0, TO. I nedoVf Gdov^ gOtjv. \ fzeda, gOc, vto. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Second Aorist. 

ofiac, §, ^Tac. I C}[ieQov, yGdovj fjGOov, \ uiieda^ rJGdSf uvTac, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
First Future. Second Aorist, 

^G£Gdac. I cGdac. 

PARTICIPLES. 

First Future. Second Aorist. 

TjGOfiEv-oQ, 7}, OV. I '^fzev-oCi Vi ov* 

1. The middle form lefiai is used in the sense of " ^o hasten;''^ lit- 
erally, " to send one's self on." Hence arises the kindred meaning of 
*' to desire ;" i. e., to send one's self after anything, in which sense it is 
the root of ?//e/oof, " desire." 



164 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



2. ^Rfiac, to sit} 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Singular, Dual, Plural, 

fjliai, TjaaL, firai, | jj/ieOoVj yadov, tjcOov. \ Tjfieday ^oOe, rjvrai.^ 

Imperfect. 
^/^^v, ^Go, TjTO, I Tjfiedovy Tjodov^ Tjodrjv. I Tj^eda, rjade, 7)vro, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

jyco, Tjadu. I Tjodov, yoOuv. \ Jjade, TJaOcoaav, 



INFINITIVE. 
Present. 



PARTICIPLE. 

Present. 

7//j,ev-og, 71, ov.^ 



3. 'Elfiat, to clothe one's self, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect. 



Singular, 


Dual. 


Plural, 


elfiaii elaai, elrai, and 
eloTai. 


Pluperfect. 


— elvrac. 


ecfiTjv, elaoy and itacOy 
elro, eloTo, haro, and 


First Aorist. 


— elvro. 


ecG- \ 

iaa- > afiTjVf o), aro. 


dfiedov, acdovy dcdriv. 


d/Liedaf aadsy avro 



1. This verb is considered, by many grammarians, as a perfect pas- 
sive from €Q, I set^ being for el/Lcat, elaai, &c. The compound Kadij/iai 
is more common than the simple verb. 

2. For ^vrac the lonians used ^arac, and for ^vro, in the pluperfect, 
iaro ; for which the poets said elarac and elaro. 

3. The accent is on the antepenult, on account of the present signifi- 
cation. The true accentuation, if yfievog be regarded as a perfect par- 
ticiple, is on the penult, rffxevog. 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 165 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present and Perfect. First Aorist. 

etjLLevog. | kaadiievog. 

CLASS III. 

1. Kelfjiat, to lie down. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

KeT-fiac, cat, rat. | fieOov, adov, cdov. | (j,eda, cde, vrai. 

Imperfect. 
iKel-fiTjVj aoj to. \ /xeOov, cdov, gOtjv. \ iieda, cOe, vto» 

First Future, 
KELG-oiiaty £i, ETat. | Sfiedov, egOov, eoOov. I 6/j,£da, egOe, ovrai. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD, 
Present. 

KetCOf KELOdcO. I KELGdoVy KELg6o)V. | KELGOEy KElGdcJCaV* 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
Keoi'fiTjv, o, TO. I fiEdoVy Gdovy gOtjv. I fiEday cBe, vto, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. First Aorist. 

KECJfiaC. I KEtGOfiaC. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present. 

KELGdaC, I KELfjLEV'OC, Vy OV' 



aai 



2 



166 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

2. "laTjfjit, to know} 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Singular, Dual. Plural, 

Imperfect. 
r I I auev. are, aaav, and 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Ig-qBl and dt, dro) and | arov and rov, druv I are and rf, druaav^ 
TO). I and rwv. | ruaav^ and rwv. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present. 

iadvaL. \ laa-g^ ca, v. 

MIDDLE V0ICE.3 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Singular, Dual. Plural. 

Iffa-fiaij cacy rat. | fiedov, odov, cOov, \ [lEda, cOey vrai. 

Imperfect. 
iffd-ftjjv, (70, TO. j fiedovy cdov, gOtjv. \ fieday ade, vto, 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present. 

laaadai. \ ladfisv-oCy ^, ov. 

1. The verb icrr/jLa occurs in the singular only in Doric writers ; as, 
laafii^ Theocrit. 5, 119. According to the grammarians, oldafievy the 
first person plural of oWa, was changed by the Ionic writers into Id/ueVj 
which the Attics softened into LGfiev, and from this last was formed a 
new present, namely, the verb larjfjii. 

2. In common use, the dual and plural of the present tense alone oc- 
cur. For the singular olda is employed. Thus, olday olaOa, olde ; dual, 
IcTOv, iGTOv ; plural, iGfiev, tare, laaat. 

3. The passive laafiai is not in use. 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 167 

3. ^TjfiL, to say, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
Singular, Dual. Plural. 

(j>ri/j,if ^TJgy (f>7}GL I (paroVf (parov, \ (pa/ieVy (parSf ^aaL 

Imperfect. 

£<p-7]v, ?7f, 7]. arov, dT7]v. 



afievy are, aaaVj and 
av. 



First Future. 
<p^a-o)j siCf et. I eroVy erov. \ ojjlev, ere, ovdi. 

First Aorist. 
k(^7]G-ay agy e. | arov, arriv. \ a/iev, are, av. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

i^adL, (jtdrcj. I (jydroVf (j>dTQv. | ^are, (pdroxjonf. 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

(pac-vv, VC, V- I Vrovy 7]Triv. [ ^^^^ ' ^^^' '^^^ » 

First Aorist. 
fqa-aifiiy atg, at. \ airov, airriv. \ atfzev, aire, atev, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

^> #r> ^5- I (l>VTOVj '(l)7JT0V' I (pCJfieV, (pTJTE, (pQffl, 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Present. 

<l>dvai. I ^dg, (paaa^ (pdv. 

First Aorist. First Future. 

ipTjaat. I ipTjoidv, 



168 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



Second Aorist. 
(byvac. 



First Aorist. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 
Perfect. 7r€(j>afiaLj — Trecparac. 

INFINITIVE. 

TTecbdcdac. 



IMPERATIVE. 

TTE<j>aada>. 

PARTICIPLE. 



Singular, 
(pa-fjtalj aacy rat, 

kijtd-flTJV, GO, TO. 



<l>dG-Qj 6o). I 

INFINITIVE. 
Present. 
ij>da6ai. 



MIDDLE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
Dual. Plural. 

I fzedov, odov, gOov. \ fzeOaj gOe, i 

Imperfect. 
j (ledovy gOov, gOtjv. \ fisOay gBe, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
I 6ov, duv. I 6e, &QGav. 

PARTICIPLE. 
Present. 
[ ^fieV'OCj % ov» 

REMARKS. 



1. The present indicative of ^7}fii^ with the exception of 
the second person singular, is enclitic ; i. e., throws back 
its accent upon the preceding word. 

2. The imperfect £0?/v, &c., is generally placed after 
one or more words of the speaker, as an aorist, like the 
Latin inquit, even when another word of the same signifi- 
cation precedes. "Fi(prjv, 0a>, and the infinitive <pdvai^ are 
always used of past time ; as, (pdvat rbv liCoupdrTj, " that 
Socrates has said,^ 

3. In the language of common life riv, rjg, fj, is frequently 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 169 

put for e67]V, ^rjg, ecprj. Thus, rj 6' bg, " said he ;" rjv 6' 
EjG), ^' said /." 

4. The aorist 8(j)r]Ga is hardly used in the Attic dialect, 
except in the sense of " to maintain ;" as, dnecprjae, " she 
refused ;" Xen, Cyrop. 6, 1, 32. The optative (f)rjGac[jbt 
and subjunctive (prjao) often occur in this same sense. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS.i 

1. From irregular verbs must be distinguished the de- 
fectives, of which a considerable number occur in the Greek 
language. These exhibit no deviation in the formation of 
tenses, like the irregular verbs, but are characterized by 
the follow^ing peculiarities : 

2. From "the great copiousness of the Greek language; 
from the diversity of its dialects, of which several attained 
a high cultivation, and were established in written produc- 
tions ; and from the particular attention continually bestowed, 
by the Greeks in general, upon the harmony and improve- 
ment of their language, it could not fail to happen that a 
multitude of old forms gradually declined in use, and were, 
at length, entirely supplanted by others of more modern 
date. Thus the simplest form, the present of many verbs, 
has become obsolete, and is no longer to be met with in the 
writings of the Greeks ; while individual forms, chiefly for 
the narrative tense, the aorist, are still in use. 

3. Every such relic of an old verb is now associated 
with the more modern present form to which it belongs in 
signification, although the two frequently possess no resem- 
blance to each other. Thus we say, that to the present 
alpEG) belongs the aorist elXov, although it is impossible for 
the latter form to be deduced in any way from the former, 
but the two are allied together solely by the common sig- 
nification, *' to take away.^^ The same is the case with re- 
epect to eXsvGOfjbai and rjWov, both being associated with 



1. Rost, G, G. p. 289, seg. 
P 



170 CATALOGUE OF 

the present epxofiat, and to others eniimerated in the fol- 
lowing catalogue. 

CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
Observations, 

1. The forms distinguished by capitals are all obsolete 
roots, which are requisite for the deduction of irregular 
forms still in use, but must no longer be used themselves. 

2. To avoid unnecessary prolixity, the extant forms of 
an irregular verb are often not completely enumerated. 
These, however, are merely forms which continue in the 
analogy, and can be formed easily and regularly, and the 
omission is always indicated by &c. Thus, for example, 
in alveCi), after assigning the future alviao), the aorist rjveoa 
can be formed at once, and, therefore, has not been received 
into the catalogue. 

3. Where the signification is not specifically given, the 
natural one, such as is clear from the signification of the 
present, must be understood to remain. 

4. Forms which are usual only with the poets and in 
the older language are designated by an * at the begin- 
ning. 

A. 

*'Aa<y, ** I hurt,^^ of which the aorist aaaa or aaa, in the active ; 
adraiy the third person singular of the present ; adadrjVj in the passive 
aorist, and aaodfiriVy in the middle aorist, are alone -usedl. 

'AyEtpUf " I assemble^'''' future, ayepw, perfect, fjyepKa, both regular. 
The pluperfect, with the Attic reduplication, ayrjyepKa^ third persont 
pluperfect passive, ^ayriyeparo ; third person plural, second aorist mid- 
dle, *^yepovTOf besides its participle ^dypofievog, 

"Ayafiatf " / admire^^^ present and imperfect like iGrafiai ; future, 
aydGOfiai ; first aorist passive, rjyaGdrjv ; first aorist middle, ijyaadiiTjv. 

"AyvvfiLy " I hreaky'*^ from "APfl, future, afw ; first aorist, m^a (with 
the old form of the augment), in the epic dialect also jj^a ; perfect mid- 
dle, Idya (with an intransitive signification, ** / am hrokerC^) ; second 
aorist passive, hdyrjv. 

"AyQf " / leadf^^ future, afw, &c. ; second aorist, rjyayov ; infinitive 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 171 

of the second aorist, ayayelv ; second aorist middle, yyaySfiTjv (all these 
three with the Attic reduplication); perfect, yx^y Doric ayijoxa, 

*AeLpa>f " I raise up,^^ used only in the participle, aetpov ; participle 
passive, aetpofievog ; participle of the first aorist active, aetpag ; of the 
fijst aorist middle, aetpdfievoc ; of the first aorist passive, aepdeig ; and 
in the third person singular of the first aorist passive, aepSr] ; the third 
person plural of the same tense, aepOev ; the third person singular of the 
pluperfect passive, acjpTo. All its remaining forms are deduced from 
alpD. 

*'AEQ, infinitive, aijvac or aTjfjihai^ " to hlow^^^ retains the long char- 
acteristic vowel also in the dual and plural, as well as in the passive. 
Present passive, aTjfiai ; first aorist active, aeca ; first aorist infinitive 
active, aeaaCy " to sleep. ^^ 

Alvio), *' I praise j^^ future, alviacj, &:c. ; perfect passive, yvy/Liai ; but 
first aorist passive, yveOrjv. 

Alpecjy *' I takcj^^ future, alpTJao ; perfect, ypriKa, Ionic, apaiprjKa ; 
perfect passive, yprjfxat ; first aorist passive, ypidrjv. The second aorist 
is borrowed from the obsolete root 'EAQ, and makes el^ov^ infinitive 
cAe:^, for the active ; and elXofijjv^ infinitive kXeodat^ for the middle. 
A^pw, ^^ I raise,^^ future, apcj, &c. 

Kiaddvofiat, " I fecl^'''^ future, aladrjao/iai, &c. ; second aorist, ycdo- 
fiyv ; perfect, ijadrjfjLai. 

*AKaxfJ-^vog, ^^ pointed,^^ perfect participle passive, from an unusual 
root, which may be 'AKAZi2 or 'AKQ, according as a reduplication is 
assumed or not in aKaxfJ-evog. 

*'AKAX12, " / afflict,'''' second aorist, jjKaxov ; first aorist, rjKdxnfyct 
or atidxv^o, ; second aorist middle, ijKaxonrjv or dKaxoftrjv ; perfect 
passive, aKdxvj^f^t' and aKrJx^l^CLi ; third person plural perfect passive, 
cLKTjx^^o.TO'i' for ciK'qx^vTai ; third person plural pluperfect passive, aKax- 
tiaro for clkuxv^to. 

*'A/leeivw, ^^ I avoid,^^ to which the epic forms of the first aorist mid- 
dle are, y?.evaTO or dXevaTO ; participle, d?i€vdfievoc ; infinitive, aTisaa- 
Sat and aXzvaaQai, deduced from a root 'AAE without a. 

'A?uefcj, *' 1 avert^'' future, ake^rjUid ; and, from 'AAEK12, the first ao- 
rist middle infinitive, oki^aGdat. From the syncopated form 'AAKi2, 
and by reduplication, are formed the epic second aorist infinitive, d/la/l- 
Kelv, (fee. 

'AldacvG), " I heal,^^ future, dW^ffo ; second aorist middle, ^dWofiT^v, 
with an intransitive signification. 

'AXiGKOfiaty ^^ I am caughty'' from 'AAOfi, future, dl6G0[j,at\ second 
aorist active (with a passive signification, '' I was caughV^), tjIdv, Attic 
kdTiCdv ; second aorist infinitive, d'kuvac ; second aorist subjunctive, ci/lw, 



172 CATALOGUE OP 

d^wf, &c. ; second aorist optative, dTiotrjv ; participle of second aorist, 
dXovc ; perfect, zy/lw^a, Attic kdlcoKa (in a passive signification, " I have 
been caughf^). 

^'A'XcTaLvOj " / 5m," future, akirTjaLd ; second aorist, tiXltov ; second 
aorist middle, rfkiToiiTiv. Also okLTrjiievog^ as present participle middle, 
from an accessory form, akirrjiit. 

"AlXojuaL^ *' J spring,^^ future, akov(iai ; first aorist, TjT^dfirjv ; second 
aorist middle, yXSfirjv ; epic, in the second and third persons, syncopated 
and without aspiration, dXao, dXro. 

^'AAtSc/cw, " / shun,^^ future, dXv^u ; first aorist, rjlv^a. 

'AfiapTuvQf ^^ I err,'''' future, dfiapTrjcofiat ; perfect, rjfidpTrjKa ; second 
aorist, Tj/Lcaprov, epic yfiSporov. 

'AjllBXIgkl), ^^ I miscarry, ^^ future, d/iSXoGu, &c., from 'AMBAOQ. 

'AfiTvexo) and diintoxvovfiai, see under "^x^- 

*'AjLL7T?iaiiLGK0), *' J err^^ or " miss,^^ future, dfnz'kaKrjCG) ; second ao- 
rist, TJjLiTrAaKov ; second aorist infinitive, dfiTrXaKeLV. 

'Afi(j)LEVvviiL, "/ dress,'''' 'AM$IE12, future, dfZ(j)tEaG), Attic, dfi(j>iC>^ 
first aorist, T^fKJJteGa ; perfect passive, 7]fi(l>L£G{iai, dfi(j)cei/j,at. 

'AvaXiGKO), " I consume''' or '' spend,'''' forms from avaAow the future, 
dvaTiuGQ ; first aorist, dvd'kidGa ; perfect, dvd7\,GiKa, both unaugmented 
with the Attics ; but in Ionic with the augment ijvdXcdKa or dvTjXcdKa. 

^AvSdvo), " I please,'''' imperfect, ^o^cJaa^ov, andiav^aa^ov epic, also e^v- 
davov ; second aorist, eddov epic, and also ddov, besides the third per- 
son, evade ; second aorist infinitive, dSslv ; perfect, idSa and edda ; fu- 
ture, ddyGCj. 

*'Avyvo6ev, third person singular of the perfect middle, to denote a 
finished action, ^^ gushes for th,^^ " rises up ;" to be derived from 'ANGfl, 
allied to avdeo, " I flower, ^^ 

'Avoiyu or dvocyvvfj,t, see Olyu. 

^''Avcjya, an old perfect form of uncertain derivation, and with a pres- 
ent meaning, " I command'''' or " commission.'''' First person plural in a 
syncopated form, dvoyfiev ; imperative, avuxdc, besides rjvuyea as a plu- 
perfect. Hence a new present, dvciyco ; imperfect, fjviDyov and rjvuyEov ; 
future, uv6^G) ; first aorist, yvu^a. 

*'A7r7jvpcjv, as first person singular and third person plural of the im- 
perfect, with also an aorist signification, *' / took away ;" second person, 
dnrjvpag ; third person, dirrjvpa, from an assumed radical form, dwavpao), 
of which, however, nothing occurs besides the forms just enumerated. 
To it diTovpag belongs as a participle, although their connexion does not 
admit of being clearly pointed out, 

*'A7ra0i(7/c6j, " / deceive,^'* second aorist, rj'Kac^ov ; second aorist infin- 
itive, d7ra(j>ELv ; future, d7ra(j)7JGG). 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 173 

'kitex^dvonai, ** / am hated,'''' future, airexd^aofiac ; perfect, aizrjxBn- 
fiat ; second aorist, anrjxGofirjv . 

'ApaplaKcoy '* Ifit,^^ second aorist, rjpapov ; future, apGcj ; first aorist, 
ffpca ; first aorist middle, TjpadfiTjv. The perfect middle, updpa or dprjpa, 
has an intransitive signification, as also the perfect passive, dprjpe/iat. 

'KpEGKQ, ^^ I make favourable'^ or ^^ pleasing ^^^ also intransitive *' / 
pleas e,^^ future, dpicoj &c. ; perfect passive, TJpeGfxat ; first aorist pas- 
sive, Tfpiadrjv. 

'APi2, radical form to apapioKu and apiaKcj ; also to alpcj. 

Av^dvo), ^'' I increase,'''' second aorist, rjv^ov \ future, av^rjao) ; first 
aorist, rjv^jjKa ; perfect passive, Tjv^Tjfiat ; first aorist passive, Tjv^rjdrjv ; 
first future middle, av^^aofLaCy as future passive, " / shall grow,'''' i. e., 
be increased. 

'Axdo/icn, ^^ I am vexed^^^ future, dxdsao/xai ; first aorist passive, t/X' 

*'AXi2, radical form to dxvvfzac and 'AKAXi2. 



Batvo), " I go,^^ primitive form BAQ, by reduplication Bi/3aw, jSiSyfii, 
or, by the insertion of ck, /?a(T/c<j ; future, (STJao/nat ; perfect, (SeCrjKa ; 
second aorist, edTjv ; second aorist subjunctive, jSu ; second aorist op- 
tative, fSatJjv ; imperative, f^ridt ; infinitive, iS^vac ; participle, fSdg. 
Some compounds take a transitive signification, and therefore form 
also the passive forms, perfect, (ietafxat ; first aorist, kSdOrjv. In the 
Ionic dialect the simple verb is also used in the transitive sense, " to 
lead,'''' *' to bring,'''' and the future (^tjGo) and first aorist etrjaa stand ex- 
clusively in this signification. The following accessory forms, from the 
dialects, must also be observed. 1. Of the third person present, fStta, 
participle, [StScJv, formed from ptSdo), and (ScSdg from (3i6j]fa. 2. Of the 
second aorist, third person dual, (Suttjv, besides [Sjjttjv ; third person 
plural, eSav, besides ESrjGav ; subjunctive, /3w, lengthened into 6ew and 
6ELij, plural, jSeiOfiEv. 3. The syncopated accessory forms of the perfect, 
first person plural, (SiSajLLEv, third person plural, (^E6daai ; third person 
plural of the pluperfect, PsSaaav ; participle of the perfect, /3E6a6g, (SeS- 
avla, contracted [3e66^, /3e6cj(Ta, &c. All these forms belong to the 
poets, and particularly to the epic poets, with whom an aorist middle, 
pfjOETo, and an imperative, priaEO, also occur. 

Bd/l/lw, " I throw, ''^ future, (SaTiu, Ionic and with later writers, /?a/lA^- 
co) ; second aorist, ISaAov ; perfect, fSiS'krjKa ; perfect passive, f5E67nj{iaL ; 
first aorist passive, E67.7)dr}v ; second aorist middle, kSaAojUTjv. There 
are also formed in epic, from an assumed form BAHMI, a third person 
dual, P'kTjTYiv, either of the imperfect or second aorist ; and a third per- 

P2 



174 CATALOGUE OF 

son singular of the second aorist middle, eSTiriro, with a passive signifi- 
cation ; besides the infinitive, f^lrjadat ; participle, ISTiyfievoc ; optative, 
^Tielfirjv, (3?yelo. Epic writers also form (SeSo^aro^ as a third person 
singular of the pluperfect passive ; and SeSoTiTj/LisvoCf as a perfect parti- 
ciple passive, from an accessory form BOAEQ. 

*BAPEQ, usual present, papvvcjy " / load ;" from the old radical form 
comes the epic perfect participle ^eSaprjcjg. 

Baard^o)^ '^ I hear,''^ future, PaGrdau^ &c. ; adopts in the passive the 
other mode of formation, according to the characteristic y ; as, first ao- 
rist passive, kSaardxdTjv. 

BdGKO), BAQ, BIBHMI, see Batvo). 

BL(3p6(7K0), " / ea^," from BPOfl, future, fSpuGio and (SpuGOfiaiy &c. ; 
second aorist, eSpov. 

BloOj *' Hive" future, fScuGO/xac ; first aorist, eStoGa, besides the sec- 
ond aorist, kStoVy of which the remaining moods are chiefly used ; as, 
subjunctive, /3lCj, f^Lug, &c. ; optative, f^iuTjv ; imperative, jUioBl ; infin- 
itive, piibvaL ; participle, fScovg. 

B?[,aGTdvoj *' I sprouty" future, fS^iaGryccjj &c. ; second aorist, 15- 
T^aGTOv. 

BAHMI and BOAEQ, see fSaTilo). 

BoGKG), *' I feedy" future, jSoGKTJGcOf &c. 

Bovlofcac, *' I will,^^ imperfect, eSovTiSfiTjv and rjBovTiSfiijv ; future, 
l3ov?i7JGO/j,ai ; perfect, (ie6ov%r)fjLac ; first aorist, kSovT^rfiriv and TjSovXjjdTjv, 

BP012, see BiSpuGKCi. 



Ta/ieoy ** I marry y"* future, yafieGo, Attic, ya/LiUy also yafiriGu ; per- 
fect, yeydfiTjKa ; first aorist, eyrjfia ; first aorist infinitive, yrjiiai ; future 
middle, yafiovfiai ; first aorist middle, kyr/judfiTjVy from the root PAMQ. 

*Veyo)vay a form for the perfect, similar to dvoyay used also in the 
signification of the imperfect and aorist, " I cried aloud ;" participle, ye- 
ycj)v6g ; infinitive, yeycovetv and yeyuvsfzev. Also a new imperfect, 
eyeyuvevv, contracted from kyey6veov. 

TENQ, the obsolete root of yelvofiat (a purely poetic form) and ytvo- 
fiac or yiyvofxaiy which transitively signifies, " I beget ;" intransitively, 
^^ I am borriy" ^^ arise," ^^ become " The transitive signification, how- 
ever, belongs only to the aorist eyeivdfir]Vy *' / begat." All the remain- 
ing forms in use, namely, future, yevrjGOfiaL ; second aorist, kyevSjLLTjv ; 
perfect, yeyova and yeyevrifiaiy have the intransitive signification alone. 
In epic, and with the poets, perfect, yeyaa ; third person plural, yeydaGL ; 
first person plural, yiyafiev ; infinitive, yeyd/j,€v ; participle, yeyaug, ye- 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 175 

yavta, contracted yeycoc, yeyiJGa ; which forms are all to be deduced 
from the simple root PE, and by change of sound FA. 

Tydecj, ^^ I rejoice,^^ future, yyOijcfo^ &c. ; perfect middle, yeyTy^a, in 
the signification of the present. 

Tiyv6(jKG) (Attic, besides yLv6GK0))y ** / know,'''' root, PNOfi, future, 
yvuGo/xac ; perfect, eyvuKa ; perfect passive, eyvuGftac ; first aorist pas- 
sive, kyvucdyv. The second aorist, formed according to the conjuga- 
tion in /zi, is eyvov ; plural, eyvufzev, &c. ; infinitive, yvuvat ; impera- 
tive, yvudiy yvcjTcjj &.c. ; optative, yvoirjv ; participle, yvovQ, 

A. 

Aa^vat, see AAG. 

AaKvcjf " / bite,^^ from AHKfl, future, drj^ofiai ; perfect, dedijxctj &c. ; 
second aorist, sdaKOv. 

Aafidcj, ** / towe" or " subdue,^^ simple root, AAMG, whence second 
aorist, kddfiov ; subjunctive, dafiu, lengthened into 6a/iecj and Safieiw ; 
perfect, deSfiijKa ; perfect passive, dedfirifiai ; first aorist passive, iofjLridrjv. 

Aapddvd), ^^ I sleep y''^ future, dapdrjaofzai ; perfect, deSdpOrjtia ; second 
aorist, sdapOov, by transposition, edpaOov ; and, with a passive form but 
an active signification, kddpdrjv. 

*AAQ, primitive to dtdaa/cw, " / teach,'''' from which, with an active 
signification only, second aorist, edaov or didaov. The most usual forms 
are, the second aorist passive, eddyv, *' I was taught f infinitive, dafjvai ; 
subjunctive, daeto) (by an epic prolongation for daCi) ; future, darjaofiai. 
The passive signification belongs also to the perfect, 6eddi]K.a, dedaa, 
dedaTjfiat. Of the middle, the epic infinitive, deddaodai, " to become ao- 
quainfed with,^ ^^ inquire into,^^ is alone extant. 

Ael, see Aew. 

Aeida), see Ato. 

AeLK-vvfiL, ** / show,'''' future, dei^u, &c. The lonians make the de- 
rivative forms without i, thus, ^efw, ede^a, &c. The epic form of the 
perfect passive, detSeyfiai, is irregular. 

AefiG), ** I build,^^ first aorist, eSetfia ; perfect, SidfirjKa ; to be distin- 
guished from the like forms of the verb dafido. 

AepicG), usually SepKo/xat, " / 5ee," perfect, d^dopKa, with a present 
signification ; second aorist, edpaKov (by transposition from edapKOv), 
also eSpdKTjv and edepxdv^^ a-ll with an active signification. 

Aexofiai, *' I receive,'''' future, de^ofjLat, &c. The epic forms of the 
second aorist, without a connective vowel, k6eyfirjv, third person singu- 
lar, denTo and edeKTo ; imperative, Si^o ; infinitive, SexOai ; participle, 
deyfievog^ are to be observed. 

AsQ, "J bind,^^ future, drjoo ; first aorist, edijoa ; perfect, diSeKa; 



176 CATALOGUE OF 

perfect passive, SedE/iat ; first aorist passive, tS^djjv. The third future 
passive, dedrjaofiai^ has the signification of the simple future passive. 

Aew, ** / waiit,^^ *' am deficient^'''' passive, Siofxat, " I have need of,^* 
** beg ;" future, deyao, &c. In general, the active occurs only as an im- 
personal ; present, del ; subjunctive, diy ; optative, deoc ; infinitive, delv ; 
participle, deov ; imperfect, ^dec ; first aorist, kderiGe ; future, derjaet. 

AHK12, see LaKvcd. 

Ai6d(JK0), *' / teach,^^ future, dcdd^o) ; first aorist, kScSa^a ; perfect, 
dedcdaxdi &c. 

AtSpuGKUj " / run away,^^ usually occurring only in compounds, bor- 
rows, from the root APA12, the future, dpaaofxai ; perfect, deSpaKa ; sec- 
ond aorist, edpav, af, a ; subjunctive, dpw, ^paf, dpc, &c. ; optative, 
^palrjv ; imperative, dpadc ; infinitive, Spdvai ; participle, ^paf, all 
formed according to the conjugation in /it, 

AL^ijfiL, " I seek,^^ retains the long characteristic vowel in the passive 
form, contrary to the analogy of the conjugation in fii. 

Atcjy '* Ifear,^^ '^fly ;" Siofiat^ " / scare^^^ ** terrify,^^ both in use only 
with epic writers. Hence are deduced the perfect, diSia, ** Ifear,^^ in 
epic also deldLa ; plural, without a connecting vowel, delSiinev, Secdtre, 
6£c6ia(Tt ; imperative, dddidt ; infinitive, detdtevat, epic SelSifiev ; parti- 
ciple, dsiStugy genitive, -orog and -urog ; third person plural of the imper- 
fect, eSddcGav. The common language has the present, SetdG) ; future, 
decGonat ; first aorist, edecca, epic eSdeiaa ; perfect, dedoiKa, with a 
present signification. 

AoK&Oy " I appeaVf^^ " seerriy'' from A0Ki2, future, cJo^w, &c. ; per- 
fect, with a passive form, deSoy/xat, " 7 have appeared.''^ The regular 
formation, SoKyao, &c., is more rare. 

APAi2, see AcdpaGKCj. 

Avvaftat, " I am ahUy'' second person, dvvaaai (not dvyy) ; imperfect, 
ijdvvdfiTiVy conjugated like laTajuat ; future, dvvyaofiat ; first aorist, kdvv- 
ijBriv and hdvvdadrjv ; perfect, dEdvvT/fiac. 

Avco, *' / cover^^^ future, d^crw ; first aorist, edvca ; first aorist passive, 
kdvOr^v. The perfect, SeSvKa, and the second aorist, idvv; infinitive, 
Svvatf epic dv/xevat ; participle, dvf, have, like the middle, whose forms 
are regular, the signification, ** to immerse one^s self,'^ " to inwrap one's 
self."* 

E. 

"'Eyeipcjy "'* Iwake^^ or " arow^c," regular in most of its forms, perfect, 
kyriyepKa (with the Attic reduplication). The middle, eyelpofiai, ** / 
awake,^^ syncopates the second aorist, yypS/irjv (for ijyepofiriv) ; infinitive, 
kypeadai. To this middle the perfect kyprjyopa (for kyriyopa) belongs 



IRREGULAR AND DEFEGTIY^E VERBS. 177 

in signification, besides the epic accessory forms hyprjyopde and kyprjyop- 
6aGL (as the second and third persons plural), and the infinitive, e/p^- 
yopdac. 

"Edw, '' I eat^''^ used in this form only with the epic writers and loni- 
ans, besides the perfect, £6r]6a (with the Attic reduplication), and the 
future, sdofiac (for kSovfiac). Prose writers make use of kadlc) as a pres- 
ent, and attach to it forms from edco, EAEfl : perfect, kSrjdoKa {rjdsKay 
by change of vowel ydoKa, with the Attic reduplication kSrjdona) ; per- 
fect passive, edrjdEGiiai ; first aorist passive, rjdeadrjv. As second a> 
rist active, £(f>ayov ; infinitive, ^ayelv. 

'E^ojLtai, ^^ I sit,^^ future, eSovfiac. 

'EdiXo) and d-e?iG), '' / am willing^'''' future, edsTirjaG) and -^eTiTjao, &c. 

'E^cj, ^^ I am wont,^'' only with epic writers, together with the perfect 
middle elcoda, Ionic ecoda, in the same signification. 

EIA^, an obsolete form with the signification " J^ee," ^' perceive,^^ in 
epic yet used as a passive, elSofiac, *' / am seen,'''' *' appear,'''' " seem,'''' 
besides the aorist elcrdfZTjv or kecGafir/v. The primitive form is IAS2 ; 
second aorist, eldov, epic also without augment, ISov ; subjunctive, Ido) ; 
optative, ISoLfit ; imperative, Me ; infinitive, ISetv ; participle, lS6v ; 
second aorist middle, elS6fii]v, idSfiyv, in the same signification. The 
perfect olSa {^^ I have perceived'^ or " seen intOy'' i. e., " I know^''), which 
belongs thereto, is anomalous in formation and conjugation {vid. page 
166) ; second aorist subjunctive, eUg) ; optative, elSetyv ; imperative, 
cadi ; infinitive, elSevac, epic, Ionic ISfCEvai, ; participle, eldug, via, 6f, 
&c. ; pluperfect, ydstv, epic ySea, Attic ySy (formed from the root el6 
with an augment) ; second person, ySEcg and ySecada, also ydrjada ; third 
person, t/Sel, epic ydeE and ySsEV ; dual, ydscrov or yarov ; third person, 
TjdECTyv or ftGTTjv ; plural, ydELfiEv or yGfiEV ; ydEirs or ^ore ; ySEGav or 
^cav. Epic collateral forms of this pluperfect are, fijst person, TjeidELv ; 
second persons, tjeISelc or rjEtdriQ ; third person, t^ecSel, t^eiStj, or 7;£Me. 
As future to older stands ElGOfiac, *' I shall knowy 

EiKG), "J am /z^e," besides the future e^fw, usual only m the older 
language. The common language has the perfect middle, EocKa, Ionic 
olKa ; first person plural, EOLKa/LCEv and EOtyfiEV, in the present significa- 
tion ; participle, eolku^, Ionic olKur^ Attic £i/c(5f (which is always used 
by the Attics for the signification probable, reasonable ; while hoLKug in 
Attic only signifies similar) ; pluperfect, e6kelv. Epic collateral forms 
without a connecting vowel are eIktov and ktKTijv, as third person dual 
of the perfect and pluperfect, and t^'ikto or eIkto, as third person singu- 
lar of the pluperfect with a passive form. 

*Ei/lcj and eI?\.eg), Attic eITiecj, '* I press, ^^ future, eIXtjgo, &c. Epic 
writers adopt forms from the root 'EAQ, as, first aorist, iXGa ; infinitive, 



178 CATALOGUE OF 

ITioat or hlcat ; participle, elaac ; perfect passive, hT^fiai ; second ao- 
rist passive, haki}v or kalriv^ and as third person singular pluperfect pas- 
sive, koXfJTO, 

ElfiapTaiy see MEIPOMAI. 

'ElnelVf " to say^''^ used only as an aorist ; indicative, eIttov ; subjunct- 
ive, eItzu ; optative, eIttol/ii ; imperative, eItte^ in the plural, besides siir- 
ETE, also EGTTETE ; participle, eIttcjv. Besides these a first aorist also 
££7ra, particularly usual in the imperative, eIttov, siirdTu, &c. 

'Etpo, " / *fly," as a present only in epic ; future, kpscj, Attic kpu ; 
perfect, ElprjKa ; perfect passive, Elprjfiai ; future, ElpiJGOfiat (with a mid- 
dle form and a passive signification) ; first aorist passive, Eiprjdrjv Ionic, 
Ep^TJdTjv Attic ; infinitive, pTjdTJvat ; participle, (jridEig ; future, ()7jdjjao- 
uat ; from a root PEii. 

EZpw, " / connect together,'''' perfect passive, EEpfiat ; pluperfect pas- 
sive, EEp/iyv. 

'Elcjda, see eOg). 

*EXavvo) and e?mo), *• / drive,^^ future, k?i,dao), Attic e>lw, e/laf, kl^, 
&c. ; infinitive, £/lov ; first aorist, yldaa ; perfect, hT^rj'kdKa ; perfect 
passive, hTiTjXdnat, third person plural epic, k^^yTLdSarat for eA^/lavrai ; 
first aorist passive, rjTiddrjv. 

EAETei2, EATOa, EAGQ, see "Epxofiai. 

^^'ElTzofiaL, " I hope,'''' perfect middle, EoXira ; pluperfect, kuXTreiv. 

'EAi2, see AlpECj. 

ENEFKA, ENEIKQ, see ^Epu. 

^'EvcTTw, also EvvETTO), " 7 rclatc,''^ " ^e//," second aorist, Eviawov ; 
subjunctive, evlgtzu ; optative, EviaTzoifii ; imperative, evlgtze ; infini- 
tive, EVLGiTEiv ; future, kvtGTrrJGCj and kvtiptj. From it must be distin- 
guished kvLTTTG) or kvLGGG), " / c^i^c," ** addrcss harshly,'*'' to which the 
double form of the second aorist belongs, namely, rjvinaTzov and evevIttov. 

"^'Ev^vodE, " 25 or /ie* thereon,'''' an old perfect form, with the signifi- 
cation of the present and aorist, used only in composition, as, EnEvfjvods 
and the like, fonned from an obsolete root, 'ENGi2, by the insertion of 
0, or from 'ENE912 by change of the vowel, and in both cases with the 
Attic reduplication. 

*'Evt7rrw, see under 'Ev^ttcj. 

^''EvvvfiL, " I dress,''"' in the present formed regularly like dEiKvvfiiy 
takes an augment only in the perfect ; future, egco and eggu ; first ao- 
rist, EGGa ; infinitive, '^gqc ; perfect passive, Ei/iai, and in compounds 
also 'iGfiat ; pluperfect passive, EtfjLrjv ; second person, eIgo and eggo ; 
third person, egto and eegto (from EGfiTjv, eeg/utjv). 

^'EnavpEiv, *' to enjoy,^^ as second aorist infinitive, from the indica- 
tive, ETTTjvpov ; subjunctive, Enavpo) ; second aorist middle, EiTTjvpSfii^vi 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 179 

first aorist middle, eTTTjvpdfirjv ; future, eTravpT/aofiat,. The present is 
kwavpioKij^ of rare occurrence. 

'ETiLtjrafiat, *' / knoic,^^ imperfect, yTTKjrdfiTjv (like tarafiat) ; future, 
e^LaTfjao/iat ; first aorist, rjTZiOTrjdrjv . 

*"E7ra), " / am occupied^'''' " am about something^'*'' takes el in prefixing 
the augment of the imperfect, elTzov ; second aorist, eoirov ; subjunctive, 
OTzC) ; infinitive, gttuv (used only in compounds). The middle eirofiacy 
^'' I follow,''- is also much used in prose; imperfect, elTrofiTjv \ future, 
eipofiat ; second aorist, EGiroiiriv ; subjunctive, GTrcJiiac and eGnofiaf; 
optative, GTTot/J.jjv and tc'noifjL'qv ; imperative, gitov, epic Gireo and gtzelo ; 
infinitive, GKEGdai and EGnEGdac ; participle, GTrSjUEvog and EGTrSfiEvoc. 
The forms of the moods of this second aorist, w^ith s prefixed, are pecu- 
liar to the poets alone, and can never be used in composition. 

'Epaw, " I love,^^ has, besides the present, only the imperfect, ypovy 
with an active form. The remaining tenses have a passive form, but 
are used in an active sense, as, first aorist, ypaGdi^v ; future, kpaGd^Go- 
(j,at. The present kpcj/jtac alone has also a passive signification. A po- 
etic collateral form with an active signification is Epafxat ; first aorist, 
TjpaGafirjv. 

'EPTfl and epdw, see T^^w. 

"Epo/LLai, " I ask,^^ occurs in the general language only as an aorist, 
namely, ypSfxrjv, ijpETo, to which the remaining moods must also be 
added, although the infinitive is accented spEGdac as well as kpEGdac- 
Future, EprjGOjiaL. All deficiency is supplied by hpordu. The lonians 
have, instead of it, the present Elpofiai^ imperfect elpSfZTjv, future elprj' 
CO fiat. 

"Ep/Scj, " I go aumy,^^ future, Ep/)yGO) ; first aorist, yppijGa. 

'Epvdalvc), also hpEvdu, " I make red,'''' future, kpvdijGG) ; first aorist, 
ijpvdrjva and f]pEVGa ; perfect, TjpvdrjKa. 

*''l£ipvKO), '' I keep back,^^ future, kpv^a) ; first aorist, Epv^a (rare) ; 
more usual, second aorist, ypvuaKov. 

"EpxofJ-dt, *' I go,'''' forms from 'EAET0i2 the future hTiEVGOfiai or e%' 
EVGovfiai ; second aorist, Tj'kvdov, Attic yWov, Doric tjvOov ; infinitive, 
k^ELv ; imperative, eWe, &c. ; perfect, kXylvda) epic also elTirjlovda. 

'EgOlg), "• I eat;' see "E^w. 

Ev6q, KadEvdo), " I sleejp;'' future, evSt/gd, KadEvdjJGG) ; imperfect, 
EKcidEvdov, more rarely Kadrjvdov and KaOEvSov. 

EvpLGKo), " I find;'' from ETPG ; second aorist, £vpov ; imperative, 
evpi ; future, EvpT/Gcj ; perfect, Evpr/Ka ; perfect passive, Evpyfxac ; first 
aorist passive, evpEdrjv ; aorist middle, svpo/Ltijv and EvpufiTjv. 

'ExOofiat, '* / am hated;'' future, ExOrjaofiaL ; perfect, rjxGTjfiai, 

"^X^i ^'^ I have;'' future, efw and c^riGu ; second aorist, iaxov ; infin- 



180 CATALOGUE OP 

itive, ax€iv ; subjunctive, ctx^j ; optative, axolrjv ; imperative, ^x^^ and 
also Gx^^ (for GxeOt^ according to the conjugation in fit) ; perfect, EOxrjKa. 
Passive future, GxeOr/GOfzaL. Middle, future, e^ofiat and axvc^ofiat ; sec- 
ond aorist, kaxofirjv. From the root 2X12, whence the aorist is bor- 
rowed, a new present is formed, with the prefix ^, namely, lax^^y " / hold. 
or keep, ^^ to which also the future oxv^^o) belongs in signification. 
The following, as compounds of exc>), must be adduced on account of 
certain irregularities : 

1. avexofiaiy " I endure,^^ takes a double augment ; as, imper- 
fect, yveixofirjv ; second aorist, Tjveaxofirjv, 

2. a[nTex(^', ^^ I wrap up,^^ imperfect, afiTZElxov ; future, a/LKpe^cj ; 
second aorist, fjfnnaxov ; infinitive, ajuniGx^lv. Middle, a/z- 
Tzexofiat or afXTnaxvovfJiaL, '* I have on ,•" future, afi^E^ofiai ; 
second aorist, Tj/intGxoiiijv. 

3. vmcTxvov/iaLf " / promise,'''' future, VTTOGXVf^ofzat ; second ao- 
rist, vneGxojUTjv ; imperative, from the passive, vtzogxeBtjtl ; 
perfect, vne(JXV/^<^i" 

"E-^w, " I boilj^^ future, ifTJau, &c. ; verbal adjective, i(j>d6^ and ^^- 
Tog, k'iprjTeog. 

Z. 

Zaw, " J Zz-ye," takes, in contraction, ;; instead of a, as, second persons 
i^rig ; third person, ^y, &c. ; infinitive, C^yv. Imperative, Cjjdi (according 
to the conjugation in fii) ; imperfect, e^wv, e^rjg, &lc. 

ZevyvvfMt, '•^ I join,''^ future, feiS^w, &c. ; second aorist passive, e^vyrjv. 

Z6vvvfiLf " / gird,''"' future, fwcxw, &c. ; perfect passive, k^coofLac ; 
first aorist passive, k^6a6rjv. 

H. 

^K/iac, " / 5t^" In prose, the compound Kddrjfiat, which generally 
takes the augment in the preposition, is more usual ; imperfect, eKad^- 
fiTjv, and also forms pecuUar moods ; as, subjunctive, Kadofiat ; opta- 
tive, Kadoifirjv ; imperative, Kadyao (also KaOov, for Kadeao, with the c 
dropped). As varieties of dialect, the collateral forms of the third per- 
son plural, TjVTat and yvro, are to be observed, which in Ionic are earaiy 
'iaTOy and in epic elaTat, elaro. 

e. 

GANfl, see ■^vrjaKu. 

Qdnro), *' / Jwry," forms, from the root eA4»i2, future, -d^dfo) ; first 
aorist, eOa^pa ; perfect, TETa(pa ; perfect passive, Tedaiinat ; first aorist 
passive, kdd<p&?]v ; second aorist passive, erdcliTjVj and so on. From this 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 181 

is to be distinguished the obsolete form GA^Q, " / am astonished,^^ from 
which Tedrjna, as a perfect middle, with a present signification, and era- 
(pov, as a second aorist, occur in the poets. 

0£6), " / rww," future, d-evaofjiac or -d-evaovfiac ; the remaining tenses 
are supplied by the forms of Tpexo)- 

QiyyavOy " / touch^^^ forms, from -^lyoy future, '&l^o) and -dc^oftac ; 
second aorist, eOcyov. 

QvTJGKG), " I die,^^ forms, from GAN^, second aorist, eOavov ; future, 
'&avovfiai ; perfect, reOvTjKa (by transposition of the radical letters), be- 
sides the syncopated forms, first person plural, ridvafiev ; third person 
plural, TedvaGi ; optative, redvaifiv ; imperative, redvadt ; infinitive, 
Tedvdvac ; participle, T£6v?jK.6g, together with re6ve6c, reOvn^g^ redvec- 
6g. From the perfect is formed a future, reOvy^o) and redv^^ofiac, in 
frequent use with the Attics. 
Qopeo) and GOPG, see d-puGKCj. 
Opecjxjj see TpecfXi). 
Opexcjj see Tpex(^' 
OpVTTTG), " I bruise,^^ future, d'pvijjQy &c, ; second aorist passive, ktpil)- 

<j)7lV. 

*GpG>(7/cw, " I sjpringy'' forms, from GOPfl, second aorist, edopov ; 
future, d^opovfiai. 
GT$G, see Tvcpo. 
Qvo)f " / sacrifice j^^ future, '&vGG)y &c. ; first aorist passive, krvdfiv, 

I. 

"lAG, see EtcJw, 

"I^w, Kadt^cjy " I seaty'^ " make to sity^ future, ii^rjGCd, Kadc^ijao)) or 
KadiG) (for KadcGo) ; first aorist, eKadiGa. 

'iKVEOfcaiy more rarely ikcj, " I come,^^ future, t^o) ; usual, i^o/zac ; 
first aorist, l^a ; usual, second aorist, l^ov ; second aorist middle, Iko- 
Ii7]v ; perfect, lyjiaL. In prose, the compound aii<piKveo}iaL is alone used. 

^IXaGKOfiatf ^^ I propitiate,^^ *' appease,^ future, i/ld(7o/^<2i, epic ITidGGo- 
/MIL (from the root l?ido/j,ac or iTiafiac, which are still used in single forms 
with the epic writers) ; first aorist, ITiaGafirjv. Of the active, IXdo and 
iTiTjjLiL, " I am propitious, ^^ an imperative, cXr/dc ; and of the perfect a 
subjunctive, Di'^kd ; optative, 'Ur/Kotfxc ; occur with the epic writers. 

"lizrafiaty see '^reTOfiac. 

K. 

♦KAAG, a prunitive for the derivation of several verbal forms : 1, for 
Kaivvfiaiy " I am distinguished^''^ *' excel,'' perfect, KeKaGfiac ; pluperfect, 
kKeKdGjirjv : 3. for /c^dw, *' / trouUe,^ future, KeKadrjGio \ second aorist 



182 CATALOGUE OF 

infinitive, KEKadeiv ; participle, KeKaduv, Middle, KTjdofiai^ ^^ I am trouh' 
ledj'*'' future, KSKaSyao/aac ; perfect, KeKySa, with a present signification. 
3. For x^^^ or ;^a^o/zai, *' / give way,'''' second aorist, KEKadofiTjVy be- 
sides the regular exaoafiTjv or e;\;acro-a/z;7v. 

Ka6e(^ofiaLy KaOevdo), Kadrjiiai, Kadi^Oy see e^ofiatj evdo), Tjfxai, l^u. 

Kacvvjuac, see KAA12. 

Kato), " / hurn,^^ Attic /caw, with long a, and without co-ntraction ; 
future, KavGG) ; first aorist, sKavaa ; perfect, KsKavKa ; perfect passive, 
KeKavjuat ; first aorist passive, eKavdrjv ; second aorist passive, kKd7]V, 
Besides the given form of the first aorist, must be observed the double 
epic form eKya and eKeia, and the Attic l/cea, all formed without <t ; sub- 
junctive, ktJg) ; optative, Ky at/it ; imperative, kecov ; infinitive, KTjai ; 
participle, Kelag. Also in epic eK7jd/j,7jv and eKetdfnjv occur in the mid- 
dle form. 

Ka/lgw, " I call,'''' future, KaTiiaoy Attic KaTiC) ; first aorist, eKaXeaa ; 
perfect, KeKXijKa ; first aorist passive, eKlrjdriv ; perfect passive, KeKlj]- 
fiat, " jf <im named,^^ " am called ;" optative, K€K?iyjti7jv, KSKlyo, &c. ; 
future passive, KjirjdTJaofiat ; third future passive, KEKTiTjGOfiat. Middle, 
in the same signification with the active, future, Kalov/LiaL (for Kaleao- 
fiat) ; first aorist, eKa'keGdfJLrjv. 

Kdfivc), " 7 ^roitJ weary, ''^ from KAMQ ; second aorist, sKa/iwv ; fu- 
ture, Kafiovfiac ; perfect, Kei<.(irjKa ; participle, /c£Kfi7]ii6g, epic KEKfttjug. 

Ketfiat, " J Zie," second person, Kecaat, &c. ; subjunctive, Keofiat, 
KETi, &c. ; optative, KEotfirjv ; imperative, /ce/cro ; infinitive, KElodai ; 
participle, Kstfisvo^ ; imperfect, kKEtjLtyv, ekelgo, &lc. ; future, KECGOfiat ; 
epic and Ionic collateral forms of the third person plural present are /ce£- 
arac and Kiarai for nElvrai. In composition with prepositions, the ac- 
cent recedes in the indicative to the preposition ; but in the infinitive it 
remains on the root ; as, KaraKELfxaL, but KaraKEiGdai. 

KEpavvvfiL, " I mingle,''^ from KEpdo, which is still found in the epic 
language ; future, KEpdGcj, Attic KEpu ; first aorist, EKEpdca, epic «£p- 
acca, also EnprjGa ; perfect, KEKpdKa ; perfect passive, KEKpdfiat and 
KEKEpaGfiat ; first aorist passive, EKpddrjv and EKEpdGdrjv. 

KEpdaiVG), " I gain,^^ future, KEpddvcJ and KEpdiJGio ; first aorist, i/cep'- 
^j/va, EKEpddva, and EKEpdrjca, 

KtjSo), see KAAfl. 

KipvTjfit, an epic collateral form of KEpdvvvfxc, which see. 

Kix«i^<^> " -^ reach,'''' " overtake,'^^ subjunctive, ac^;^65, epic kcx^icj ; op- 
tative, KLXELTjv ; infinitive, KtxTjvat ; participle, KLXEtg ; third person 
dual of the imperfect, klxvti]v, all formed from KIXHMI ; future, /ct;^^- 
(Tw and Ktxv^ofiat ; second aorist, eklxov. 
.. Klxff-Vf^i^i see Xpao. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 183 

Kvlafoj, " I soundy'^ future, K?My^G) ; first aorist, iK^ay^a ; perfect 
middle, KiKkrjya ; second aorist, enT^ayov. 

KAatw, ^^ I weep,^^ Attic K?.do)y with long a, and without contraction ; 
future, KXavGOfzat or K?iav(70VfiaL ; first aorist, £K%avaa ; perfect, /c£/c- 
T^avKa. The future K%aL7]GCd or KT^aijaiD is more rare. 

*KAvcj, '•^ I hear,'''' imperative, K/li)^t and /ce/c/lv^i. 

KopEvvvfUj " J satisfy,'''* future, Kopiao) ; first aorist, EKopeoa ; per- 
fect, KSKopjjKa ; perfect passive, KEKopEGf^ac, Ionic and epic KeKoprjfiai. 

^KopvoGOy " J arm,'''' perfect passive, neKopvOfiat. 

Kpd^cj, ^^ Icry,^^ perfect middle, KSKpaya ; first person plural, KeKpay- 
fiev ; imperative, KenpaxOi ; third future passive, KeKpa^ofiat ; second 
aorist, EKpdyov. 

Kpe/jLavvvfic, " I suspend,'''' passive, Kpe/Lidvvvfiat, ^^ I am suspended,'''' 
and as a middle, ^^ I suspend myself f"* Kpe/Liafzat (like lara/LLai), "J 
hang,^^ to which are joined, subjunctive, Kpsfio/iaL ; optative, upEiMaifiTjv ; 
future active, Kpsfidao), Attic Kpsficj, dg, a, &c. The aorist passive e/c- 
pEiidodriv is common to the passive, middle, and intransitive ; but the 
future passive KpEfiaad^cTOfiac belongs only to KpE/navvvfiat, since /cpe/^a- 
fiat has a peculiar future, KpEfiTJaofiat, ^^ I shall hang,'''' *' hover. ''"' 

Ktelvo), " J A;?//," root KTE, and, by changing the vowel, KTA ; fu- 
ture, KTEVio, Ionic KravEO) ; first aorist, EUTEiva ; second aorist, ektqvov, 
besides epic Enrav, ag, a (formed according to the conjugation in fic, as, 
Idpav, from didpaGia^) ; third person plural, EKTav for EKraaav ; sub- 
junctive, KTu ; infinitive, KTavat, KrdfiEvac, KTdjUEv ; participle, KTag ; 
perfect, EKtaxa ; perfect middle, Enrova ; first aorist passive, EKrddrjv or 
kKTavdyv, besides the poetic form EKrdfCTjv as passive to the second ao- 
rist EKTav. 

Kwecjf " / kiss,''^ future, Kvv^aofiac or (from KTO) Kvaco ; first aorist, 
tKvca. 

A. 

Aayxdvcj, "/ receive by loV or ^^ fate,^^ root AAXi2 and AHX12, fu- 
ture, Arj^ofiat ; second aorist, ETiaxov ; perfect, EYkrixd or T^Ekoyxa (some- 
times called a perfect middle), as from AEFXfl. 

Aafi6dvu, '-'- 1 take,^'' root AABi2 and AHBQ, future, Irjiponai ; second 
aorist, e?i.a6ov ; perfect, ElX7j(j)a ; perfect passive, EHrj[ifjLaL ; first aorist 
passive, £lX7/({)d7]v ; second aorist middle, kTiaSofirjv. The lonians form 
?ie?M6riKa, and, from AAMBi2, the future Tidfiipofiai, first aorist passive 
kTidfKpdyv, perfect passive MXafi/LLat, first aorist middle kXa/iipdjLLTjv. 

Aavddvcj, more rarely XyOo), ^^ I am concealed,''^ future, Irjao ; second 
aorist, lladov ; perfect middle, TiElrjOa. Middle, XavOdvofiat, more 
rarely ?i.7JdofiaL, " / forget^^ future, 74iooiiai ; second aorist, Vkaddiiriv ; 
perfect passive, 7.E7j]opLai. 



184 CATALOGUE OF 

AdKEG) or TidcKOy " I resoundy^ second aorist, eXaKov ; future, XdKTj^ 
GOfiai ; perfect, XiXdKa and XeXrjKa. 

Aeyci) : 1. '*/ ^ay," forms no perfect active in this signification, but 
uses instead of it dprjua (see etpw), otherwise wholly regular ; future, 
Ae^G) ; first aorist, eTie^a \ perfect passive, MXeyfiat ; first aorist passive, 
kMxdriv. 2. *' / gather^'''' future, Aefw, &c. ; perfect, dXoxa ; perfect 
passive, elTiey/Ltat ; second aorist passive, kMyr^v ; second future passive, 
XsyrjGOfiat. 3. Middle, '* / lay myself down,^^ future, le^o/jLai ; first 
aorist, eke^dfirjv ; third person singular, second aorist, XeKTO, without a 
connecting vowel. Lialeyofxai, " I converse^^^ perfect, dtetXsyfiaL ; 
first aorist, dceMxdrjv. Hence it unites in itself the forms given under 
1 and 2. 

AHBi], see Aa/j,6dvo). 

ArjBu^ see AavOdvo). 

AHXQ, see Aayxdvo. 

Aovoy " I washy In this verb the Attics almost invariably contract 
the connecting vowel of the termination with the ov ; as, eAot;, third 
person singular of the imperfect ; eXovfisv, first person plural. Present 
passive, Tiovfiaij &c. ; infinitive, XovaBat. 

M. 

*Matofzatf see MAQ. 

MAKG, " / hleaty'* From this obsolete primitive form there remam 
only the second aorist e/naKov, and the perfect fiefiriKay participle /Ltefi-* 
dKvla, which are associated with the common present firjKdofiai. 

MavOdvcOy " I learn,^^ from MA9i2, second aorist, ifxadov ; future, 
fzadTJGO/LiaL ; perfect, /usfmdrjKa. 

^MapvajLtaCy " I fight y''^ usual only in the present and imperfect ; op- 
tative, jiapvoi[jir]v, 

Mdxofiaty " I fight, ^^ future, iiaxeGOfxai and [laxvcofiaiy Attic fiaxov- 
juat ; first aorist, efj,ax€Gdfi7]v ; perfect, iLiejLiax€(T/J,ac and jLLefidxv/^^^i" 

*MAfi, an obsolete primitive form, signifying, 1. ^^ I desirCy^^ " strive,'** 
and has in this signification only the perfect, juefxaa ; first person plural, 
fjLEfia/iev ; participle, /LLEfiaug ; genitive, -oroc and urog ; third person 
plural pluperfect, fiefiaGav. 2. <' / tastCy'^ ''feel,*' in which the present 
/jLalo/LLac is usual ; future, fidGo/iat ; first aorist, kfiaGdfirjv. 

^Metpo/Liat, " / obtain,'' from the root MEP12, perfect middle, ififxopa ; 
perfect passive, elfiapfiai. Hence ei/xaprac, " it is ordained hy fateV 

Me^Ao), ** / am about,'" " am to come,''* imperfect, rjfie'D.ov, with the 
temporal augment ; future, fxeHTjaa, &c. 

Me/lo), " I concern,'''' ''give concern to,'''' " lie at the heart of'' is mostly 
used in the active form only, as an impersonal, heXel ; future, neXTJaei, 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 185 

&c, ; perfect epic, fiefirjle ; middle, ^iXoiiai^ ^^ I am concerned ;" future, 
fuXrjaofiai ; first aorist, kfie2.7jd7]v. 

'M.efi6?MKaj see MO AG. 

Mev£j, ^^ I remain,^^ perfect, /aefievTiKa ; perfect middle, /lefiova. 

Mcyvv/LiL, also fitayo}, " I mix,'''' future, (jii^cd ; first aorist, e/zifa ; per- 
fect passive, jue/ityfj,ac ; first aorist passive, k/icxOv^ » second aorist pas- 
sive, k[iiyrjv. 

Ml/llv^gko), *' I remind,''^ from MNAfl, future, fivr/GO), &c. Middle, 
/XL/LLVTjaKOfiac, ^^ I remember^'''' " mention ;^^ first aorist, eiivrjGdrjv ; future, 
fivrjodfjaofiat ; perfect, fiefLvrj/iaLy " J am mindful of,'''' " ^to^ o/," *' re- 
member ;" subjunctive, fiefzvufiat ; optative, fiefLvyfiTjv and iiefiv6fj,7jv ; 
to which is joined the third future passive, fxefivriGOfiaL, " 7 s^a/Z ever 
hear in mind^ 

*MOAQ, " I go,'''' future, fiolovfiai ; second aorist, efxolov ; perfect, 
fiefi6K(jKa (formed from MOAi2 by a transposition of the radical letters, 
therefore properly (lifikuKa, and by the insertion of /3). The usual pres- 
ent thereto is jSTiugkco. 

^MvKdoftaLy " / bellow,^^ second aorist, ifLVKOv ; perfect, fisfivica ; 
fromMTKQ. 

N. 

^Na«j, ** / dwell,'''' future, vdaGo/LLat ; first aorist middle, kvaaad/xTjv ; 
first aorist passive, hvdaSrjv ; perfect passive, vevaGfcac. The first ao- 
rist active, evaaaa, has the transitive signification, ** J Jriw^ iw^o a 
dwelling.'*^ 

'SdoGo, " 7 stuff,'''' future, vdfw ; first aorist, hva^a ; perfect passive, 
vhaGfiat. 

'SefiD, " 7 distribute,'''' future, vefxtj and vefiyGu ; first aorist, hetfia ; 
perfect, vevefZTjKa ; first aorist passive, EvefirjdTiv and he/iedijv. 

New, " I swim,'''' future, vevGOfiaL and vevGovftac ; first aorist, evEvaa^ 
&c. 

Nifw, " 7 wash,'''' borrows its tenses from vltztu, future, vii//w, &c. 

O. 

"O^cj, " 7 smelW^ " emz^ an odour,^^ future, o^^dw ; perfect middle, 
ododa, with the reduplication, and a present meaning. 

Otyw and olyvvfit, usually dvoiyvv[iL, '' 7 open,''^ imperfect, dvsuyov ; 
first aorist, dvecp^a ; infinitive, dvol^ac ; perfect, dvecpxO' ; perfect mid- 
dle, dvEijya, with an intransitive signification, ** 7 stand open^ Epic 
writers generally use only the temporal, not the syllabic, augment, and 
9 is then changed into m ; thus, first aorist, tji^a, 

Ol6a, see EWw. 

Q2 



186 CATALOGUE OP 

Olofiat or OLjuat, " / thinkf^^ second person, olet ; imperfect, uofifjVf 
also ufiTiv ; future, otTJcrofiat ; first aorist, urjSrjv ; infinitive, olrjdfjvaLt 
Epic writers lengthen the diphthong, and say btofiatj or, with an active 
form, bicjj and form the remaining tenses to it tegularly ; as, first aorist 
middle, uiadfirjv ; first aorist passive, uhdjjv, 

Olxoixai, " Idepart,^^ or " am gone,'''' future, oixfiGOfiac ; perfect, ^XV* 
/xat ; or, in an active form with w, olxoiKa. 

0112, see olo/LLat and (l)spo), 

'Oltadalvo) or bltcfOdvUf *' / slide, ^^ future, 6Xlg67Jgo) ; second aorist, 
tjXtijdov. 

"OXkvfjii, " I destroy^'''' from 0A12, future, okeau), Attic 6/1 w ; first ao- 
rist, ukeoa ; perfect, hXCik^Ka. Middle, oKkvyiai, " I perish ;" future, 
olov/Ltat ; second aorist, u/iS/Liyv. The perfect middle oAw/la has the 
reduplication. 

"Ofivvjit, " / swear,'''' future, bfiovfiat ; first aorist, ufioaa ; perfect, 
ojLLUjuoica ; perfect passive, bfji6[ioGiiat, but in the third person also 6/zc5- 

fJLOTai. 

'OfLopyvvfiL, " / i(?i^e ojf," future, bfiSp^o, <fec. 

'OvlvTifii,, " J am of use, ''^ forms the present and imperfect like loTrifitf 
but the remaining tenses from the primitive ONAQ ; future, bvrjGO) ; first 
aorist, lovr/Ga. Middle, bvLvaftat^ " / have advantage ;" second aorist, 
wvdfiTjv, epic and Ionic cjvyfzi^v ; optative, bvaijirjv ; infinitive, ovaGdai. 

^"Ovofiac, " I revile,'''' present and imperfect like didofiai, the rest from 
ONO^ ; future, bvoGo/xat ; first aorist, uvoGa/iT^v ; first aorist passive, 

'OIIQ, ^'i" see," perfect, oTrcDna ; future, oipofiat ; first aorist passive, 
0)(j)d7]v (with an active as well as a passive signification) ; perfect passive, 
C)[i[JLai ; future, b(f)dr]Goiiai. 

'Opdcj, " I see,''^ imperfect, eupcdv, Ionic (Dpo)v ; perfect, eupaKa ; per- 
fect passive, kupafiat ; first aorist passive, kopdOrjv. All the remaining 
forms are wanting to this verb, and are supplied by those given under 
Oni2 and eiSo). 

"OpvvfiL, *' I excite,'''' from 0P12, future, opGu ; first aorist, (jpca ; 
second aorist, upopov, with the reduplication. Middle, opwiiat, " / 
arise ,•" second aorist, upofjiriv, or, by rejecting the connecting vowel, 
tjpiiriv ; second person, wpco ; imperative, opcr^o or bpGO ; perfect, opw- 
pefjiat ; perfect middle, opcjpa. 

'OG^paivojiui, " / smell,^'' future, bG(j)pyGOjLtaL ; second aorist, cjG(j>p6^ 
fiTjv, also bG(ppdjtLr}v . 

'O0e^/lw, '* / am indebted,''^ " am obliged,'''' *' ought,'''' future, bcjteLXrjGQ^ 
&c. The second aorist lx^eTiov is used merely to designate a wish, " o^ 
/^ai /" " w?02^/(i that.V and the more usual present is b<p?uGKdvQ ; future, 

h^Ti'^GQf &c. 



lUREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS, 187 

n. 

HAGfl, see lld(jx(^. 

Uai^cj, " Ijestj^^ future, irai^ofiaL and iraL^ovfiac ; first aorist, iiraiaa ; 
perfect, iriiraiKa ; perfect passive, TreTraLa/iac and niTraiyfiaL. 

Ilatw, "i strike,''^ future, usually iratTJoOf but the remaining tenses 
regular ; first aorist, inataa ; perfect, TrirraLKa ; first aorist passive, 
knaiadrjv. 

lidaxc^i *' I suffer^^^ from IIAGfl, second aorist, enadov. Perfect 
middle, neTTovda, from IIENGfl. The form iZEnrjBa for the perfect, 
eizTjaa for the first aorist, and Tcrjaofjiat for the future, are more rare, and 
are proper to the poetic language alone. A peculiar Homeric form is 
TTenoade, as second person plural of the perfect. 

IleWG), " I persuade^'''' proceeds regularly in the active, but forms, be- 
sides the first aorist snetaaj a second aorist, entdov (with the epic re- 
dupUcation TreTnOov), and likewise an epic future, TreirtOrJGO). Passive 
and middle, neidojLtaLy the latter voice with the meaning, " I believCy^^ 
^^folloiv,^^ ^^ obey ;^^ second aorist middle, timd 6 fcrjv, with, reduplication 
TreTnOofiTjv ; perfect middle, Trinoida, *' / trust.''\ 

IlfXa^w, " Intake to approach,'''' " bring near,'''' regular up to the epic 
forms of the second aorist, kirTiTJfiTjv (as middle, according to the conju* 
gation in fit), and the first aorist passive, TzeTidGSrjv. 

JliTrpcoTai, see HOP 12. 

ILeTTTO}, see Ileo-crcj. 

*'n.EpdG), ** / lay waste,^^ second aorist, sTTpaOov, by transposition of 
the radical letters, from sirapdov. 

UicjGcjj TreTTTw, ** I boil, ^^ future, Tteipo), &c., from TreTrro. 

UeGetv, see tt^tttcj. 

HeTdvvvjLLC, " I spread,'''' future, ireraGQ, Attic irercj ; perfect passive, 
TreTTTdfiac (for 7r£7reraa//a0 ; first aorist passive, h'KerdodTjv. 

ILETOfiat, " / fly.^^ From this primitive form, by syncope, we have 
the second aorist enTofirjv, infinitive TrreGdai, future irsTTJaofzai (usual 
form TTTTJco/iat), According to the conjugation in fit are formed the 
present, irerafiat and LTTTafiac ; first aorist, eTrTdfirjv ; second aorist, 
e7rT7]v ; infinitive, Trrfjvat ; participle, Trrdg ; perfect, izenTrjKa. Be- 
sides these, epic writers use the lengthened forms noTdojuat, TroTdojuatf 
and also TroTeo/iai, the tenses of which are formed regularly ; as, perfect, 

^eTTOTTJfZat, &c. 

IIETfi, see Ultttu. 
IlEvdofiai, see UvvOdvofiac. 

Hrjyvvfit, ^^ I fix,^^ future, tt^^w, &c, ; first aorist passive, kirrixB'tiv'y 
second aorist passive, kndyqv ; perfect middle, nintiyaf *' I stand fast^ 



188 CATALOGUE OF 

HtfiTrTiTjfjLtj " I filli^ infinitive, Tnfin'kdvaiy formed by reduplication 
from the root IIAAQ, wherein (i is inserted to strengthen the syllable. 
This is frequently rejected by the poets, and also in prose, when in com- 
position an additional pi happens to stand immediately before the redu- 
plication (as, for example, hfiTZLTTTiriiii). Future, irTirjoUy &c. ; perfect 
passive, ireTz'krjGfiai ; first aorist, hivTiTjGdrjv . Besides these are to be ob- 
served an epic second aorist middle, kn'krjfjLriv or ttXtjimtiv ; optative, 
TrXetjbLT^Vf with an intransitive signification, *' I am fullj^^ and a perfect 
middle, TreTcXyda, likewise with an intransitive present signification, and 
derived from an accessory form irTiTJOuj which is also not unusual as a 
present. 

ILlfLLTrpTifiL, " I set on jire^'' infinitive, 7n[i7rpdvaL, proceeds in the pres- 
ent and imperfect like cgttjjlll ; the remaining forms are from IIPAfl or 
iTp7]do) ; thus, future, 'Tzp^Gcj, &c. ; first aorist passive, hirprjGdriv. Here, 
also, the [i inserted to strengthen the syllable is omitted when an addi- 
tional fi stands immediately before the reduplication ; as, e/iTrcTrpTjfit. 

HtvOy ^^ I drinky^ from IIIQ, future, mofzat; second aorist, cttlov ; 
infinitive, TrteiVy &c. ; imperative, Trtdi, All the rest are formed from 
nOi2 ; perfect, ireTTOKa ; perfect passive, TzeirofiaL ; first aorist passive, 
kTtodrjv ; future passive, TcodyGOfiaL. The forms niGUy ImGa, have the 
transitive signification, " to give todrinky^'' to which TrcmGKO) is usual as 
a present. 

JliTTpaGKO), *' / 5eZ/," from Trepdo, future, TcepdGcj ; first aorist, Ittc- 
paGa. Then from IIPAii, perfect, TreTrpdKa ; perfect passive, ireTTpd' 
fiat ; first aorist passive, eTrpdOyv ; third future passive, TreTrpdGOfiat. 

ILiTTTOy " / /aZZ," forms from ITETQ the future, TreGOvfiac ; second 
aorist, eireGov ; and from IITOG the perfect, TrenTOKa. 

IIIQ, see Ulvo). 

UXd^cjy " I cause to wander^^^ " drive ahout,'^ future, Tr^la/fw, &c. 

IIAAfl, Ti'k'fjdcJy see llLjU7T?i7JfjLt. 

Uleuy " I saily" future active, tt^^evgcj ; future middle, izlevGOfiai 
and TrTievGov/iat ; first aorist active, eirTievGa, &c. ; perfect passive, 
TrenXevG/j.aL ; first aorist passive, eTrTievGdriv . 

TDiTjGGUy *' / strike,'''' future, tt/I^^w, &c. ; second aorist passive, E;r- 
T^TjjrjVy but in the compounds kirTidyyv. An epic form is the second ao- 
rist active, TriTrXrjyov, with the reduplication. 

II/lcjw, an Ionic accessory form of 7r/le(j, whence a second aorist, ctt- 
?L(DVy according to the conjugation in fit ; participle, 7rAc5f. 

UvEG), " / breathe,^^ future, ttvevgu or TrvEVGOvfzaCy &c. ; first aorist 
passive, knvevGdTjv ; perfect passive, *7rE7TvviJ,aCf " / possess spirit^^^ 
** am wisey 

llodiOf <' I lo'ag jor^'' future, izodriau and Trodeauj usually noOiaofLai ; 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 189 

perfect, TcsirodriKa ; perfect passive, izenodr^fiai ; first aorist passive, 
kTzodeGdrjv. 

JlopELVy sTTOpoVj " I gdve,^^ B. defective second aorist with the poets. 
To the same theme (in the sense of *' ^o distributed^) belongs the perfect 
passive TreTzpcjrai,, " it is ordained by fate ;" participle, TrsTrpufLevo^. 

nOQ, see ILivo. 

TIP0i2, see Ilopetv. 

IITAQ, see Jleravvvfii, Ilerofiai. 

lir^GGDy " / cower down^^^ future, vrr^fcj, and the remaining forms 
regular ; perfect participle, "izeTTTTjug. 

IITOG, see Ultttu. 

HwddvofiaCf " I learuy-^ from Trevdofiat (poetic), future, irevGOjuat ; 
second aorist, kirvdSfirjv ; perfect, TTeTrvG/iat, 

P. 

Te^6), " I doy^ future, pefw, or, from EPri2, future, epfw, &c. ; per- 
fect middle, eopya. 

Te«, " I flow ^'^^ future, pevaa ; future middle, pevao/jLat ; first aorist 
active, Epf)evaa. In the same signification, however, the second aorist 
kpf)vriv (formed according to the conjugation /zi, from a root TTEQ), 
with the future pvrjaofiac and perfect eppvTjKa, is more usual. 

'Pew, " I say,^^ see 'Elpo. 

'F'^yvvfiL, " I rend,^^ future, p^Jfcj, &:c. ; second aorist passive, kpfid- 
yrjv ; perfect middle, eppuya, with an intransitive signification, " / am 
rent:' 

'Fiyeo), " I shudder,^' future, (iLyrjaQ, &c. ; perfect middle, ^epplya. 

'FtTTTO) and ptnTic), " / throw,^' both forms usual in the present and 
imperfect ; all the rest from the first only ; future, f)tipcOy &c. ; second 
aorist passive, ippi(^r]v, 

Tfecj, see Te6>. 

'Vuvvvjii, *' / strengthen^'''' future, puaco, &c. ; perfect passive, ^Xjia- 
fiat ; imperative, eppoao, *^ farewell ;'' first aorist passive, kppucOrjv, 

2. 

SflATTt^w, ^' / sound a trumpet, '^ future, Ga?.my^o), &c. 

2i3evvvfiL, " / extinguish,'^ future, gSegg), &c. ; perfect passive, eg- 
fjEGfiac ; first aorist passive, eg6eg67jv. The perfect EGBrjKa, and the sec- 
ond aorist egStjv, infinitive G67JvaL, have the intransitive signification, 
** to be extinguished,'^ like the passive. 

*2evcj, ** I put in motion," first aorist, eggevg, formed without g ; and, 
by doubling the g in annexing the augment, perfect passive, EGGVfiai ; 
first aorist passive, EGGvdrjv. 



190 CATALOGUE OP 

"^^Kedavvv/iLy " I scatter" future, ffKeddau, Attic c/ceJw, &c. ; perfect 
passive, eGKedaafiat. 

2/ceA/lw, " I dry mj?," first aorist, eaKT^Xa (an epic form, as from a root 
2KAAi2). Middle, cKeTCXofiat, " / am dried up ;" future, OKXTJaofiat. 
To these, on account of a signification likewise intransitive, the active 
forms, perfect ecKXrjKa and second aorist sgkXtjv, infinitive GK?i,7Jvai 
(formed according to the conjugation in fzc), also belong. 

2/^aw, *' / smeary" second person, Gfiyg, &c. ; infinitive, cfiyv ; fu- 
ture, afjLTiaid^ &c. ; first aorist passive, kcfirjxOrjVj from CfiT/xo)- 

^necv, oireodatf see "Etto). 

^Tzevdcjf " / make a libation" future, anelacd ; first aorist, eaireiaa ; 
perfect, eairetKa ; perfect passive, eGTieta/Ltat ; first aorist passive, kaTT- 
elGdrjv. 

Hrepio), '' I deprive" proceeds regularly, but in the passive is the 
more simple form Grepofiai, to which a second aorist eGTspyVy participle 
arepeig, and future GTeprjGOfiai belong. 

liTopsvvvjuty GTopvviity and Grpuvvvfity *' / spread" future, GTopeGCi 
and GrpuGO) ; first aorist, eGTopeGa and €GTpa)Ga ; perfect, eGTpuKa ; 
perfect passive, cGrpofiat, more rarely bGToprjfiai ; first aorist passive, 
£TGopsGdT]v and kGTptddrjv. 

*1,TvyeGy " / abhor" *' 7 Aa^e," future, GrvyT]G(dy &c. The second 
aorist eGTvyov is formed from a root STTPQ, as also a first aorist, Ij- 
TV^a^ with a transitive signification, ^^ I make to shudder." 

2;^£ti;, see ''E;\;w. 

2w^w, " J save" future, gugco ; perfect passive, GEGcoG/zai ; but first 
aorist passive, kGudijv, 

T. 

Ta/law, " I endure" used only in the first aorist, kraXaGay epic hrak- 
aGGa. The perfect, Ter'XriKa (in the plural, by syncope, Terla/iev) ; im- 
perative, TerlaOi ; infinitive, TfrAaT^ai, epic T£T?id/LL£v ; future, rXyGO- 
fiac, and second aorist, ctAt^v (according to the conjugation in fii) ; in- 
finitive, T?i7jvat ; imperative, r?i?]dc ; optative, rAairjv ; participle, r/laf. 

TA^G, see GaTrrw. 

TAi2, see Tetvw. 

Teivw, " I stretch" future, revu ; first aorist, erecva. From the rad- 
ical form TE come the perfect reraKa, perfect passive TEra/xaij first ao- 
rist passive kradriv, future TadTjGOfiai. 

TEKQ, see Tlktcj. 

TiixvDy " I cut" forms from TEMi2 the future refiu, second aorist 
iTEfioVj perfect TeTurjKa, perfect passive TST/iijftaCf first aorist passive 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 191 

krfi^dTjv. In Ionic this verb is rdfivcd, from which comes the second 
aorist erajLLOv, a form used also with the Attics. 

*T€Tay6vf " reaching, ^^ *' seizing ^^^ a second aorist participle, from 
the same root with telvu. 

Tevxco. In this form two kindred verbs must be accurately distin- 
guished. 

1. Tev;\;6>, "7 make,'''' ^^ fahricate,'''' regular future, rev^td ; first 
aorist, erev^a ; perfect, TeTevxa ; perfect passive, TETvyjuat ; 
first aorist passive, erv;^^??v. Epic forms of the second aorist 
are tetvkov, active, and tetvkojllijv, middle, both by redupli- 
cation. 

2. TvyxcLVQ, " / happen,''^ *' acquire,'''' future, TEv^o/xac ; second 
aorist, etvxov ; perfect, TETvxVf^^^- 

TIkto), " / bring forth,'''' from TEKQ, future, re^w ; future middle, 
TE^o/iac ; second aorist, etekov ; perfect, rsTOKa. 

TLTpatiy " I hove,'''' from TPA12, future, rprjoo), &c. An accessory 
form more usual with the Attics is TLrpaivQ, to which belong the future 
TLTpavcj and the first aorist ETErpr}va. The perfect always from the rad- 
ical form, TETprjKa ; perfect passive, TETprjfiai. 

TiTpucTKO), " I wound,'''' epic rpow, future, rpuGQ, &c. ; perfect pas- 
sive, TETpQfiai ; first aorist passive, ETpudrjv ; future, rpcodTJaofiac, and 
also TpuGOfiai, with the form of the middle, but the signification of the 
passive. 

Tiw, " / honour,"*^ is merely poetical, and forms regularly the future, 
riao, 6lc. ; perfect passive, TETLfiat. At the same time, however, it 
furnishes the derivative tenses also to 

Ttvcj, ^^ I pay,'''' " atone for, ''^ future, tlgu ; perfect passive, tet- 
tafiat ; first aorist passive, ETiadTjv. The middle TLvofiai, fu- 
ture TiGOfiat, first aorist ETLGdfirjv, has the signification, " to re- 
venge,^^ ^^ punish.''^ 

TAHMI, radical form assumed for the formation of some tenses of 
raXdu, which see. 

TpicpG), *' I nourish,''"' future, '&pEijj(j ; perfect middle, TETpo(j>a ; per- 
fect passive, Tidpa/ifiat ; infinitive, TEOpdc^dai ; second aorist passive, 
krpd^Tjv ; more rarely, first aorist passive, kdpEc^Srjv. 

Tpixo), " / rzin," future, -^pi^o ; future middle, -d-pE^ofiai ; first ao- 
rist active, IdpE^a. More usually, from APEMi2, second aorist, kdpa- 
fiov ; future, dpa/iovfiaL ; perfect active, dEdpdfirjKa ; perfect middle, 
SiSpofia. 

Tp6yQ, *' / ea^," future, Tp6^ofzai ; second aorist, Irpayov, from 
TPATfl. 

TvyxdvQi see Tevx(^' 



192 CATALOGUE OF 

TvTTTOj '' I Strike j'^ has commonly, with the Attics, future, TvirT^acj ; 
second aorist passive, ervTrrjv. 

Tv(j)G), " I fumigate j'' '^ burUy' future, '&vil)u ; second aorist passive, 

T. 

^TiTLCxveo/iaL, see under "Exci)- 

^' 

^dyuj see "'ESq. 

^atvcoy " I cause to appear,''^ future, (pavu ; first aorist, e(l>7]va ; sec- 
ond aorist, E(f)avov ; perfect middle, ne<pr]va ; perfect passive, Tci(j)aafiac ; 
first aorist passive, e<pdvd7}v ; second aorist passive, k({)dv7jv ; second fu- 
ture passive, (^avrjGO[jLai. The passive has an intransitive signification, 
" / appear^'''' which properly belongs to the middle. 

^etSofiaty *' I spare,^^ future, i^etaoiJLaiy &c. Epic forms are, perfect, 
7re<})idr}fj,ac, usual form 7re^£iC7/iat ; third future, TTe(j)cd7fao/LiaLy in the sig- 
nification of the simple future ; second aorist, izE(f>L66[i7)v, by reduplica- 
tion. 

^epQ, " I hear^'' imperfect, l^epov ; present passive, d^kpoiiai ; imper- 
fect, kipepS/LLTjv. All the other tenses are formed partly from OIQ, partly 
from ENEPKQ. Thus, future, olgq ; first aorist, rjveyKa (Ionic tjv- 
eiKo) ; second aorist, rjveyKov ; perfect, hvrjvoxcL ; perfect passive, hv^v- 
eyfiat (Ionic svyvetyfiac) ; first aorist passive, tjvexOtjv (Ionic rjveixOrjv) ; 
future, kvex6?]G0jj,aL and otGdrjcofiaL ; future middle, olaoftac ; first aorist 
middle, yveyKafzrjv. In epic, several other forms are derived from 0II2, 
besides these adduced ; as, imperative of the aorist, ola£f OLGeruj <Stc. ; 
subjunctive of the aorist, third person singular, olari. 

^ddvo), " I am beforehandj^^ " anticipate^'''* forms from $0AQ, future, 
(^drjGu ; future middle, (j)d?JGoiJ,ai ; first aorist active, I^^gctcz ; second 
aorist, £(p67jv ; subjunctive, cpdcj ; optative, <f>dalrjv, &c. ; perfect, e(j)6aKa. 

4>i)w, " / begety^^ future, ^vo-w ; first aorist, e^vcra ; middle, (pvo/iaCf 
*' J arise,^^ ^^ am born,^^ &c. ; perfect active, 7ri(j>vKa, "/ am by na- 
ture ;" second aorist, e(pvv, ** I am,^^ &c. 

X. 

Xalpcj, " / rejoice^'''' future, x^f'PV^f^ ; future middle, ;^aip^(T0^ai ; in 
epic also KEXCcprjGG} and KExap'^Go/iac ; second aorist, kxdpTjv (according 
to the conjugation in [it) ; subjunctive, x^9^ ? optative, x^P^^V'^i &^c- 
Besides these are to be observed the forms of the aorist : hxaipTjaa 
with later writers ; EXVpdfJ^r/v and nExapofiriv in epic. Perfect active, 
KExdpTjKa i perfect passive, KExdpijuaCy poetic Ksxapfiau 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 193 

Xefw, " / stool,'''' future, ;t;e<76>, more usual than ;t£crot'^ai ; perfect 
middle, KExoSa. 

Xeo), " 1 pour,^^ future, ;\;£i;crw ; first aorist, ex^a, epic exeva (formed 
without the characteristic of the tense, by merely annexing the termina- 
tion) ; infinitive of the first aorist, ;j;£ai ; imperative, ;^eov, ;:\;earw, &c. ; 
perfect, KexvKa ; perfect passive, KEXvuai ; first aorist passive, sxvBriv, 
&c. 

Xpdo). Of this verb must be distinguished five different forms of in- 
flection, with then: significations. 

1. Xpao), *' / give a response,'*'' proceeds regularly ; infinitive, 
XP9''^ i future, xpV^^i <^c. ; first aorist passive, exprjadrjv. 

2. Kixpv/J'f'i *' -^ lend,'" proceeds hke iGTrjfiL (yet without a sec- 
ond aorist) ; future, XPV^^ \ first aorist, expV^<^^ &c. ; middle, 
Kixpa/nat, " / borrow ;" future, XPV^^I^^^- > first aorist, hxprj' 
adfirjv. 

3. XpdofzaL, " I use,'''' takes 77 instead of a in contraction ; sec- 
ond person, xPVi ^c- 5 infinitive, xp-V^d^^i- ; future, xpV^^ofiaL ; 
first aorist, kxpv^^^f^V^ 5 perfect, KEXpVf^^^f' (usually in the sig- 
nification, *' Iwanf). It is remarkable that the lonians, when 
they contract, take a here as the mingled sound ; thus, infini- 
tive, Ionic xpff'^^Oac. Generally, however, instead of xp^ofxac, 
they use the form xp^o/nac, which is regularly conjugated 
throughout ; they also change after e into cj ; as, xP^^'^'^cli-- 

4. XpjJ, "i/ is incumbent," '' one ought," &c., infinitive, xpV'^cli- ; 
optative, XP^'^V J subjunctive, XPV 5 participle, xpewv ; imper- 
fectj Exp7]v or xpV'^^ never Expv ; future, xpv^^f- 

5. 'Atlgxpv^ "?'^ is sufficient," third person plural, a7zoxpC)ai ; in- 
finitive, dTTOXpVV ; participle, diToxpcJv^ uaa, cbv ; imperfect, 
cLTTEXprj ; future, dTroxpVGEt. Here also the lonians usually 
take a instead of 77 ; as, imperfect, drrEXpa. 

Xpuvvvfzt, " I colour," future, ;^pg3(7w, &c. ; perfect passive, KEXpo)(y- 
fiat ; first aorist passive, kxpoicrOv^- 

XuvvvuL, " I heap up," ^' dam." The radical form xoo) is usual as a 
present with the older writers. To this belong the infinitive, x^^'^ '■> ^^" 
ture, x^^^f ^c- 5 perfect passive, HExc^oiiai ; first aorist passive, ex(^c!- 
Otjv. 

'QOeo, " I push," imperfect, euOovv ; future, coOrjatd and ucg) ; first 
aorist, Iwcra ; perfect, toj/ca ; perfect passive, EOGfiat ; first aorist pas- 
sive, h6cdi]v ; all from the radical form '00^. 

R 



194 PARTICLES. 

XXVI. PARTICLES. 
The Particles are Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Preposi- 
tions, the Interjections being ranked in Greek under Ad- 
verbs. 

ADVERBS. 

1 . The most usual termination of an adverb is in cjg, 

2. If the adjective from which the adverb is derived be 
one that ends in og, the adverb is formed by merely ap- 
pending the termination (og to the root as indicated by the 
nominative. Thus, from ao(j)6g (root oocj))^ we have ao(f)0)g ; 
from fcaXog (root A:aA), KaXCjg ; from Kaipiog (root Kaipi)j 
icatpLCjg, &c. 

3. In the case of other adjectives the root will be rec- 
ognised most clearly in the genitive ; and to the root thus 
found the termination o)g is in like manner annexed. Thus, 
from fieyag (root iieyaX)^ we have ixeydXG)g ; from ;\;aptei^ 
(root x^^pLevr), xapisvTdig ; from dXrjdrjg (root dXriOe), dXrj' 
decog, contracted dX7j6(x)g, Sic, 

4. In many cases the adverb has no particular form, but 
is expressed by some part of an adjective. Thus : 

1. The neuter of the adjective, singular and plural, 
is used for an adverb chiefly by the poets ; as, Ka- 
Xbv dscSetv, " to sing beautifully ;" Ppa^ea dteX- 
SelVf " to recount briefly, ^^ 

2. In like manner, also, the dative singular femi- 
nine occurs instead of an adverb ; as, 6r]fjiO(Tia, 
^' publicly ;^^ idea, ''privately;''^ KOivxj, ^^ in com- 
mon ;" tce^tj^ *' on foot ;" ravrxj, *' thus" '* in tJds 
manner^'' Sic. But, strictly speaking, in such con- 
structions a substantive is always to be supplied, 
usually oSg). 

5. Adverbs are also formed from substantives, and that 
in various ways. Thus : 



ADVERBS. 195 

1. Certain forms of substantives are used in the 
signification of adverbs ; as, dpx'rjv (in the begin- 
ning), " entirely ;^ dicfirjv (at the point), " scarce ;" 
tcofitd^ (with diligence), " very much ,*" CTTOvd'^j 
(with zeal or pains), " with trouble or difficulty,''^ 
" scarce,''^ " hardly. ^^ In all these, and others of 
the kind, there is an ellipsis of a preposition. 

2. Some substantives furnish an adverbial sense 
when combined into one word with prepositions. 
Thus, napaxp^l^ci (with the thing), " immediately ;" 
Tcpovpyov (npo epyov, for the thing, to the pur- 
pose), " serving the purpose,''^ " serviceable,^^ '' re- 
quisite,^^ ** useful ;" eiCTToddjv (from before the feet), 
" out of the wayy'^ " aside ;" efjiTTodcjv, " in the 
way,^^ '* impeding,''^ 

3. Adverbs are derived from substantives by annex- 
ing certain syllables. Thus, the terminations da, 
6c, oi, at, %?/, and %ov, signify " in a place ;" the 
terminations Be and dev, ''from a place ;" and 6e, 
GE, ^e,^ '' to a place ;" as, 

evravda here. 

ovpavoOc in heaven, 

olnoi at home. 

^AOtjvtjoc . at Athens, 

-navraxr] > everywhere. 

navraxov ) 

d^Xaxov elsewhere^ 

ovpavoOev } r -, 

, \ jrom heaven, 

ovpavods > 

otfcodev from home. 



1. The termination ^e is nothing more than aSe, the double letter be- 
ing put for the g6. This change, however, occurs merely in some names 
of places, and in a few other words ; such as, -Qvpa^e, for -^vpacde, " to 
the door;' " out.'' 



196 ADVERBS. 

ovpavovde ) ^ , 

, , > to heaven, 

ovpavoae S 

Orj6a^e to Thebes. 

Adrjva^e to Athens. 

4. Adverbs are also formed from substantives by an- 
nexing the syllables 66v and L(7ri, and those thus 
produced express comparison ; as, j3oTpv66v, '* clus- 
ter-wise ;" icvv7]66v, '^ after the manner of dogs ;" 
'HXXrjvtGTC, " after the manner of the Greeks ;" 
dvSpiarc, " after the manner of men ^ 

5e Adverbs derived from substantives sometimes end 
in ddr]v^ and then denote that something takes 
place by the application of the idea which is con- 
tained in the substantive ; as, Xoyddrjv (from A6- 
yog), '' by selection ;" diJi6oXddr]V (from dvatoXrfj^ 
'' by delay:' 

6. Adverbs are also formed from verbs, and have the ter- 
mination in driv, which termination is annexed immediate- 
ly to the root. A preceding soft or aspirate, however, must 
change at the same time into the corresponding middle let- 
ter. Thus we have tcpv6drjv, from icpvTTTG) (root Kpv6), " se- 
cretly ;" TjXeydrjv, from ttXekg) (root nXeic), " in a twisted 
manner or form ;" avXXrj667jv, from GvXXafji6dvG) (root ovX- 
Xrjd), " taken together ^^ 

7. Lastly, from some prepositions, also, adverbs are 
formed, which serve to denote place, and which all termi- 
nate in (0 ; as, dvo) (from dvd), " above ;" Kdro), " below ;" 
e^G), " without ,-" elao), " within ;" irpooo), '^ onward.^' This 
0) belongs also to some other adverbs ; as, d^vG), " sudden- 
ly ;" ovTG), '' thus ;" drriGO), " behind ;" noppo), ''^ farP 

8. Besides these there are yet many adverbs whose der- 
ivation does not admit of being accurately pointed out, and 
which are partly obsolete adjective forms; as, nXrjfTLOv, 
^ near;'' arjfiepov, " to-day ,*" avptov, " to-morrow ;" dyxoVy 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 197 

** near ;" biiov, " at the same time ;" eIkti, " in vain ;" (5/%^, 
*' in a twofold manner ,*" and partly genuine adverbs, with 
the terminations a, a^, ^, et, oc, ov, re ; as, icdpra, " i;ery ;" 
fri^ag, " wear ;" fieyaXcjorc, '' greatly ;'' £A;e?, *' there ;" 
TTO^, ^^ whither f^ ttote, ^' when,"^^ &c. 

9. Under the head of adverbial particles, the a (before a 
vowel av) must be especially noticed. It is of three kinds : 
1. a privative f which carries with it the force of a nega- 
tion ; as, dao(pog, ^' unwise;'' dvvSpog, '' without water ;'' 2. 
a intensive, which strengthens the meaning ; as, a^vXog, 
^' much wooded;'' 3. a denotiong union; as, dXoxog, "a 
consort.^'' 

10. The following also occur frequently in the poets, and 
denote increase, &;c. 



apt; 


as. 


dpcdrjXog, 


very conspicuous* 


pov; 


(( 


l3ovl3pG)GTig, 


voracious. 


Ppi; 


(( 


jSpirjTTVog, 


shouting aloud. 


da ; 


(C 


ddoKLog, 


thickly shaded. 


epi; 


■^' 


ept6pefirig, 


loud roaring. 


ia; 


(C 


^d/coTog, 


furious. 


Aa; 


u 


Xdjiaxog, 


valiant. 


Xc; 


u 


XiXaioiiaiy 


I desire earnestly. 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 

1. There are in Greek two simple negative particles, with 
which all other negations are compounded, ov and iir]. 
The former of these becomes ovk before a vowel that has 
the soft breathing, and ovx before a vowel that is aspirated. 
The Attics, also, for greater emphasis, sometimes write ot^%i. 

2. From these two negatives, ov and iir], are formed all 
the other modes of negation in Greek ; such as ovde, ovre, 
ovSecg, ovttots, ovnconore, ov6a{jiG)g, ovdafiov, jj^rjde, [iTjTe, 
lirjdELg, &c. 

3. Although the English language possesses only one ex- 

R2 



198 NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 

pression for both of these particles, yet between the use of 
ov and firj in Greek, a definite and important distinction ob- 
tains. 

4. In general, this distinction is correctly designated by 
saying that ov denies positively and directly , but that ju^, on 
the contrary, denies conditionally or prohibitively. Hence 
ov is used to deny a thing itself ; |it?/, on the contrary, to 
deny the supposition of a thing. 

5. Hereupon is founded the following general rule : ov 
stands as a negative particle in an independent proposition, 
and in all cases, likewise, where an idea is negatived in 
and by itself: jtxTy, on the contrary, denies in conditional 
propositions, whether they appear as really dependant, or 
the dependance lies merely in the imagination, as in con- 
ditional and assumed cases. 

6. The following remarks will lead to a right application 
of this rule in single cases. 

1 . A whole and independent proposition, whether 
pronounced as an absolute assertion or as an opin- 
ion and view, or as a question, can be negatived 
only by the particle ov. Thus, ovk ayaObv fj no- 
^vnocpavca, *' The government of the many is not a 
good thing. ^^ Ova av dyanGyrjv tcaXsLGdat aTTta- 
Tog, " / would not like to be called faithless.^^ TL 
yap ov Trdpeoriv ; " Why^ then^ is he not present V* 

2. M?/, on the contrary, appears as a negation after 
all particles expressing condition, supposition, and 
intention ; as, eZ \ir\ bpQ(bq Aeyco, (sov epyov kXiy- 
X^tv, ^^ If I do not speak correctly^ it is your part 
to prove it!^^ 

3. M?y is used after relatives, and with participles 
when these likewise express a condition ; as, rig 
de dovvat dvvarat erepo) a fj^i] avrog exst ; " Who 
can give a thing to another, if he has it not himself ?^^ 
Here a ovk avrog e^et would mean, " that which 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 199 

he has not himself. "^^ So, also, 6 jit?) inarevGiv^ " If 
a person does not helieve.^^ But 6 ov marevcjv, 
" One who does not believe, ^^ 

4. Mrj is used v/ith infinitives, whether they be de- 
pendant upon a verb or accompanied by the ar- 
ticle ; as, dvdytCT] rovro fj^rj TTotecv, " It is neces- 
sary not to do thisy To jl^t) TTStadrjvac fioc at- 
Tiov Got T(x>v fcaiccov, " Your not being persuaded by 
me is to you the source of these evils.''^ 

5. M.7] always stands with the imperative, as also 
with the subjunctive when it is used instead of the 
imperative, and with the optative when it indicates 
a wish ; as, [li] Tcpdrrs rovro, " Do not do this ;" 
fiT] rovro dpdaxjg ; and again, [irj rovro yevotro, 
" May this never Z>e." 

6. Every purpose implies a conception in the mind 
of some one or other, and therefore fj^rj, not ov, fol- 
lows Lva, 6iTG)g, b(ppa ; as, HdAwv dnedrjfjiriae erea 
dena Iva drj iir] nva rojv voficjv dvajKaaBxi Xvoac, 
rCoveOero : " Solon absented himself from home for 
the space of ten years, in order that he may not be 
compelled to rescind any one of the laws which he 
had enacted^ 

7. Two negatives generally strengthen the negation, and 
do not destroy each other, as in Latin. 

8. This rule may be expressed more fully as follows : 
When to a sentence already made negative, other qualifica- 
tions of a more general kind are to be added, such as some- 
times, some one, somewhere, <fec., these are all commonly sub- 
joined in the form of words compounded with the same 
negative particles ; as, ovfc erroLTjae rovro ovSafioi) ovdeig, 
** No one anywhere did this.^^ And in the same manner, to 
the negation of the whole is subjoined the negation of the 
parts ; as, oi^ dvvarat ovr* ev Xeyeiv, ovr* ev iroielv rovg 
(piXovg, " He can neither speak well of nor do good tOj his 
friends.^^ 



200 NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 

9. In some phrases both the particles ov and [irj are united ; 
as,ov [irj and firj ov. In this combination, as in all other 
cases, ov denies objectively and [ir] subjectively. Hence 
ov [MTj implies the idea of no apprehension being entertained 
that a thing will take place ; firj ov, on the contrary, the 
idea of an apprehension being entertained that a thing will 
not take place. Hence are derived the following observa- 
tions ; 

1 . Ov firj is an intensive and emphatical negation, 
and indicates the imagination of a thing which 
should not and must not take place ; as, ov iirj 
dvaiJLEvrjg eaxf (fyiXoi^, " That thou wilt not (I expect) 
he ill-inclined towards thy friends f^ that is, " he not 
ill-inclined towards thy friends, ^^ And again, aXX' 
ovttot' e^ efjiov ye fxrj iidBxig rode, " Yet never (must 
thou expect) that thou wouldst learn this from me;" 
that is, " yet never shouldst thou learn this from meP 

2. Mv) ov, in dependant propositions, when the verb 
of the principal proposition is either accompanied 
by a negation or contains a negative idea in itself, 
destroy each other, and are often to be translated 
by " that,^"* Thus, ovk dpvovfiat fii] ov yeveaOac, 
*^ I do not deny that it has taken place ,*" and again, 
TceiOofjiat yap ov roaovrov ovdsv coare fii) ov KaXcog 
i&avelv, " For I am persuaded that there will nothing 
happen to me so had hut that I shall die nohly.^^ 

3. In independent propositions, on the contrary, //?/ 
ov is used in combination with the subjunctive to 
express negative assertions with less positiveness 
and strength, and is to be translated by " indeed 
not^^^ '^ perhaps not,^^ and explained by the addition 
of an omitted verb, as bpa, or the like. Thus, dA- 
Xd iirj ova xj di^aKrov rj dperrj, " But virtue may^ 
perhaps, he a thing not to he taught^ Literally, 
*' But see whether virtue may not ie," Ac, the verb 
bpa being supplied. 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 201 

10. Besides the case of firj ov mentioned above, two neg- 
atives also destroy each other when they belong to differ- 
ent verbs ; as, ovdev eanv ore ovu vneax^ro, " He promised 
everything ;^ literally, " There is nothing that he did not 
promise,''^ 

1 1 . As compounded with the negation ovk,^ the particle 
ovKovv may also find a place here. This particle, used by 
the Greeks both in questions and in direct propositions, ad- 
mits of different translations, and is also differently accent- 
ed, being sometimes written ovfcovv and sometimes ovkovv. 
The following is to be remarked as essential concerning it. 

1. In interrogative propositions, when the particle 
signifies not therefore ? is it not so ? not 1 it is al- 
ways to be accented ovfcovv, because ovfc must 
here be significantly and emphatically heightened. 
Thus, OVKOVV yeXojg rjStarog eig exOpovg yeXav ; 
" Is it not, then, the sweetest laughter to laugh at 
one's enemies ?" 

2. In direct propositions ovkovv is either to be trans- 
lated " therefore not^'^ " yet not^"* or else it stands 
at the beginning of the proposition as a mere em- 
phatical expression for the simple ovv, and is to 
be translated by " therefore^'' " consequently ;" as, 
Gv TOVTQ kixoi7]oag, OVKOVV eycoye, " thou hast done 
this, therefore not J." In this case the accentua- 
tion is generally given as ovkovv. Strictly con- 
sidered, however, the idea of negation does not 
vanish in ovkovv even where it is to be translated 
by therefore, but the particle is there, also, proper- 
ly an interrogative one. Thus the following sen- 
tence, OVKOVV, orav Srj firj adevG), Trenavaofiat, 
" Therefore, when I am unable, I shall desist, ^^ is 
equivalent to " /^ it not so? when I am unable^ I 
shall desist .<'" 



202 CONJUNCTIONS. 

CONJUNCTIONS, &c. 
AAAA. 

1 . ^kXkd is an adversative conjunction, and answers generally to the 
English " hutP From this meaning arise others, however, such as, 
*^wellj theUy^^ '•''therefore^'''' in which case aXX^d is generally elliptical. 
Thus, akX IgOlj drt 'i^et tov6' ovtcjc' "WieZZ, then, know that this will 
he 50." Supply ovk avTCGTTJacj, or the Uke ; '' I will not oppose, but, on 
the contrary, know,'''' &c. So, in the following passage of Xenophon, it 
occurs in four different senses, all of which may be traced by means of 
ellipses to the primitive meaning of " hut.^^ 'AAAa iia At', e(p7j, om av- 
Tog e'kK.eadai TrpSg oe fSovTiOfiat, aXkd ae irpbg kfie TzopEveadat. 'A/l/la 
TTopevao/LLaL, e(l>rj, fiovov vnodexov. 'A/l/l' vTToSe^ofLal ae, £(}>i]' hdv [jltj rig 
(ptXoTepa GOV evSov y. '' ' Nay, indeed,'' replied Socrates, ' I do not wish 
to be dragged unto you, but you to come to me.' * Well, then,'' said The- 
odota, */ will come; do you only receive me.'' * Why, I will receive 
you,^ replied Socrates, *■ if there be not some one dearer than you within.'' " 

2. ^AXkd yap. In this combination yap introduces a reason for the 
opposition, &c., expressed by aXkd. Thus, dXka yap Kpeovra levaou, 
iravGG) rovg TTapeGTurac Tioyovg. '* But I will check what I am at pres- 
ent saying, for I see Creon.''^ Sometimes, however, the reference is 
more latent, and a clause is to be supplied between d/lXa and yap from 
what precedes. Thus, in Plato, Rep. 2, p. 336, we have, d2,?id yap ev 
aSov diKTjv dtoGOfJLEv, where we must repeat from the previous clause, 
OVK dC,T)fjLL0L aizaXXd^ofiev. *' But we shall not escape unharmed, for we 
shall render atonement in Hadesy In many instances the reference 
in okTid ydp is to be supplied by some general remark, such as, " hut 
this was not at all surprising, for ;" " but this was impossible, for,"*^ &c. 

3. 'AXk' ovv ye. These particles are often joined together, inasmuch 
as, along with the opposition, a consequence of what has preceded is 
also expressed. Thus, dXX' ovv tovtov ye rbv xpovov tjttov dTjdrjg ego- 
(lai. " Yet {aXkd) I will, for this reason {ovv), noio at least {ye) be less 
disagreeable.'''' 

4. When joined with ov6e it strengthens the sense ; as, aXX ovSs 
TCEipaGOfiai, " Nay, I will not even try,'''' Frequently, in this construc- 
tion, oh fiovov ov is to be supplied in what precedes ; as, in the present 
instance, we may say, " / will not only 7iot do so, but I will not even 
try." 

5. In dTiXd rot the particle roc strengthens the force of d?i?id ; " huty 
indeed," ^'•why, that, indeed,'''' ^^ why, as for that,"" &c. Thus, aX)! 
lj6v TOL, ** Why^ that is a pleasant thing enough^ 



CONJUNCTIONS. 203 

AN. 

1. The particle uv^ for which the epic writers use Ke or /cev, cannot 
well be expressed by any corresponding particle in English, but only 
gives to a sentence an air of uncertainty and mere possibility. It is em- 
ployed, therefore, to modify or strengthen the subjunctive and optative ; 
and is also employed with the indicative, in order to impart to it more 
or less of uncertainty. 

2. This particle commonly stands after one or more words in a clause, 
and is thus distinguished from the uv which is formed by contraction 
from kdv. This latter particle av usually begins a clause, and has the 
meaning of "?/," &c. The Attic prose writers usually change it into 
f]v, the Attic poets always. 

3. The particle hdv, " 2/," is compounded of the conditional el and 
the av mentioned in the first paragraph. 

4. The dv first mentioned is frequently put twice, sometimes even 
thrice, in a clause or sentence. In some cases, where the dv occurs 
twice, one of these particles attaches itself to a finite verb and the other 
to a participle or infinitive ; as, opibvTeg dv kxpjjoavTO dv " If they had 
seen they would have used^ Many cases occur, however, where this 
explanation will not answer, and where the second or repeated dv must 
be regarded as brought in merely to indicate more plainly the idea of 
uncertainty intended to be expressed. Thus, dXkd Kav ev^aivro dv ye- 
vsodac- " But they might, perhaps, have wished it to happen.'''* 

APA. 

1. The primary power of dpa is that of deducing consequences from 
premises, and hence it has usually the signification of " therefore^ It 
is regularly employed, therefore, in the conclusion of syllogisms ; as, el 
yap eloi f3o)fj,ol, eial xal -d-eot' dWd firjv elat jScofiot' elolv dpa Kal ■&eoi. 
** For if there are altars, there are also gods. But there certainly are 
altars ; therefore there are gods too^ When joined with el, el firj, or 
kdv, it signifies " if, then,'''* " if, indeed,'''' or, more probably, " conse- 
quently ^ Hence it serves for an emphatic asseveration, as if founded 
on an inference. 

2. Different from this is the adverb dpa, which is an interrogative par- 
ticle, like the Latin num or utrum. Thus, dpa narddrj'kov povTiOfxat, 
"Xeyetv ; " Is, then, what I wish to say evident V* When a negative 
answer is expected, it has generally the particle ^77 attached to it. Thus, 
kdv 6e oov TzpGGKarrjyoprjoo, on did to dyacsQai avrov^ Kal evvoiKoJg 
exsf-C T^pog avrov, dpa fjjj 6ia6d7i7ieadaL do^etg vir' kfiov ; " But if I 
shall still farther allege against you, that, in consequence of your admi^ 



204 CONJUNCTIONS. 

ration of him, you feel also well disposed towards him^ will you on that 
account think that you are slandered by me V If we wish to express 
the Latin nonne, it is done by dp' ov, and. sometimes even by dpa alone. 
3. The interrogative dpa is placed first in a clause or sentence ; but 
the apa first mentioned stands always after one or several words, and 
even at the close of a proposition. 

TAP. 

1. Tap, ^^for,^^ never stands at the beginning of a proposition or 
clause, but, instead of it, Kal yap is used at the beginning, like etenim in 
Latin. In Greek, the proposition of which that with yap assigns the 
cause is often omitted, inasmuch as it is easily understood, and is passed 
over by the speaker in the vivacity of discourse. Thus, in the answer 
so common in Plato, we have egtl yap ovro), " (Certainly) /or so it 15.'* 
So it is often used in questions, because an additional member may al- 
ways easily be supposed ; as, for example, " / know^'^ " I believe,^^ " ./ 
cannot do it,'''' &c. Thus, Horn. Od. 10, 501, ^12 KlpKr/, Ttg yap Tavrrjv 
66bv T^yEfLovevaet ; *' OA Circe (I cannot go thither), for who will guide 
me on this way ?" By the frequency of this kind of interrogative use, 
it gradually lost its proper force, and came to be employed simply to* 
strengthen a question, like the Latin nam in quisnam. 

2. In such expressions as Kal yap, dXkd yap, &c., the former particle 
indicates an omission of something, for which yap assigns a cause ; and 
hence nal yap, when closely translated, means, " and {no wonder,) for ,'"'* 
" and {this was natural,) for,'*'' &c. So in dXXd yap, we must say, 
when rendering literally, *' hut {this was impossible,) for,^^ " but {this 
happened otherwise,) for,''^ &lc. The context will always, of course, 
suggest the proper ellipsis. 

PE. 

1. Pe, an enclitic particle, emphatically heightens the word which it 
follows above the rest of the clause, and thus strengthens the idea of the 
same. It is frequently joined to pronouns, particularly personal ones ; 
as, eycjye, " 7, at least,'''' " I, for my part.'''' It is often, too, put in com- 
bination with other particles, from which it usually stands separated by 
one or more words; as, ye drj, '■^really,'''' ^'-certainly;'''' ye tol, ^* at 
least,'''' " however^ 

2. Generally, also, ye is used in rejoinders and answers, either to 
confirm or restrict ; and likewise in exhortations, to render them more 
impressive. But in English it often happens that the sense of ye, in its 
various combinations, can only be indicated by heightening the tone of 
the word to which it refers. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 205 

AE. 

1. The particle 6e is always placed after one or more words in a 
clause, and properly signifies " iw^," both as distinguishing and opposing. 
Very often, however, it serves to mark a transition from one proposition 
to another ; and, generally speaking, every proposition which has no 
other conjunction at its commencement takes this Se^ whether it be re- 
ally opposed to the preceding or not, particularly in enumeratioiis. In 
such cases, therefore, it generally remains untranslated in English. In 
the ancient form of the language, especially in Homer, it often stands for 
'* and;'''' and it is also used on some occasions, in the old poets, to ex- 
plain what goes before, in which cases it answers to yap, ^^for^ 

2. The principal use of de, however, is its opposition to fiev. The 
opposition in which one member of a sentence stands to another can be 
stronger or slighter. The Greeks in both cases use [j,ev and 6e for con- 
nexion ; but in English we can only employ the particles " indeed'''' and 
*' huV to designate the stronger opposition ; and hence we are often de- 
ficient in definite expressions for the Greek [lev and (5e, which we then 
translate sometimes by " ant^," ^' also;'''' sometimes by ^'"partly — partly,'''^ 
" as well — as also,'''' &c. 

3. When fxev is put in the first member of a sentence, the thought 
necessarily turns to an opposite member with 6L Several cases never- 
theless occur where, with fih preceding, the expected de does not actu- 
ally occur. Namely, either (1.) the antithesis to the member formed 
with [lev expressly exists, but declares itself so clearly by the position 
and subject that ds can be omitted. This is chiefly the case when tem- 
poral and local adverbs are used, which stand in a natural opposition be- 
tween themselves ; as, kvravOa and e/ce?, TrpcJrov and ercecTa, &c. Or 
(2.) the antithesis lies only in the mind, but is not expressly assigned in 
the discourse. This is chiefly the case when personal and demonstrative 
pronouns are used at the beginning of a proposition, in combination with 
fxev ; as, kyo) fiev irpoypr^/LLac, " I have formed the resolution'^ (another 
probably not). Kal ravra fzev 6r] rotavra, " These things are so circum- 
stanced^^ (but others differently). Or (3.) the antithesis is indicated by 
another particle ; as, d/l/la, avrdpf avre, &c. 

'H. 

1. The primary use of ^ is disjunctive, and its sense is " or." Next 

to its disjunctive use is that connected with doubt or deliberation, where 

it has the meaning of *^ whether — or ,•" as, jLcepfiypt^ev rj oye 'kTpetdriv 

kvapL^otf ye ;^6aov Travcretev, *' He pondered whether he should slay 

Atrides or calm his wrath.'''' 

S 



206 CONJUNCTIONS. 

2. The particle 7/ is also frequently used in a question, when a prece- 
ding and indefinite question is made more definite ; as, rig ovv fiot diro' 
KptvetTat ; 7) 6 ve^rarog ; " Who, then, will answer me 1 the young 
est ?" Even in its interrogative sense, however, this particle still re- 
tains, in fact, its disjunctive meaning, as will be apparent if we supply 
as an ellipsis before it, " Am I wrong in my conjecture V Thus, in the 
passage just quoted, we may say, " Am I wrong in my surmise, or is it 
the youngest ?" 

1. The primary and true sense of rj is that of affirmation. It is ex- 
plained, therefore, by ovrug, akrjdCbg, '•'■in reality,'''' ^^in truths Its af- 
firmation, however, affects whole sentences or propositions ; as, 7] izeya 
^av/za rod' b<^da7^iiolGLv opcjfiac. *' Assuredly, I see in this a great won- 
der for the eyesy 

2. In the combination tj yap it is remarkable that the former particle 
affects the latter. This happens because yap is always a subjunctive 
particle ; and thus tj is confirmatory of the causal signification of yap ; 
as in Priam's words (//. 22, 532), where, after giving orders to keep 
the city gates open for the reception of his routed forces, he adds the 
reason, ri yap 'Kxt^^evg kyyvg ode Kkovetdv ^^ for see, too surely is 
Achilles near throwing all things into confusion^ So Calchas {B. 1, 
78) gives a reason for bespeaking the protection of Achilles ; rj yap bto- 
fiat avSpa ;^o/lw(T£/^ei^, k. r. A. *'/or / assuredly do think that I will 
make that man angry, ^^ &c. 

3. In the combination ^ ttov the particle y is affirmative and ttov con- 
jectural, and hence the two, when combined, express a degree of proba- 
bility bordering on certainty. They do not however, coalesce into one 
word, for, if they did, 7J would have the acute accent. We must render 
7J TTOV by " in all probability,^^ ^' doubtless,-'' " unless I am very much 
mistaken,'''' &c. 

KAI. 

1. As particles for uniting together the members of a proposition, the 
Greeks make use of Kai and the enclitic te, the use and distinction af 
which are pointed out in the following observations : 

2. Kat and re serve for the simple union both of single ideas and of 
entire parts of a sentence. The connexion by re is more usual in the 
elder and poetic language than in Attic prose, and generally this particle 
is not merely put once between the two ideas to be connected, but join- 
ed to each of the connected parts ; as, naryp avdpCjv re i^ewv re, " the 
father of both gods and men.''^ This connexion by re — re occurs with 



CONJUNCTIONS. 207 

Attic prose writers only in the union of strongly opposed ideas ; as, cpe- 
petv xpV '^^ T^ SatfLovca avaynatug rd rs dizb rdv Trole/LLccov avSpecoyg. 
" We must bear the dispensations of the gods as a matter of necessity, 
and the hifiictions of our foes with a spirit of manly resistance. ^^ With 
Homer, however, frequently, and with the Attic poets rarely, re — re 
are used in the union of kindred ideas. If more than two ideas are con- 
nected. Homer proceeds with the repetition of re ; as, in //. 1, 177, 
aiel yap tol epig re (plXjjf TroXeftoc re, jLtdxat re ; or, after having several 
times repeated re, then uses Kal ; as, Od. 3, 413, seq.^ 'E;^;e0/oa>v re, 
^rpartog re, Hepaevg r*, 'KprjTog re, koI dvrWeog QpaGVfx^djjg ; or in- 
terchangeably re, Kac, re. 

3. The particles re Kat connect more closely than the simple Kac, and 
are chiefly used when ideas are to be represented as united in one sup- 
position. Hence this kind of combination is also chiefly used, when op- 
posite ideas are to be assigned as closely connected ; as, xpV^'^oc rs Kal 
TiOVJjpoL — dyadd re Kal KaKd. For this reason we say dXXcjr re kcU 
(both in other respects and also), ''^particularly also,^^ " especially ^''^ be- 
cause d7Jiu)g already expresses a natural and strong antithesis to that 
which follows. 

4. The combination Kai — /ca/, " as well — a^," " both — awiZ," can only 
be adopted when the combined ideas are of different kinds, but never in 
those which are perfectly homogeneous. Hence several substantives 
can always be connected by Kai — Kai ; as, dneKTSLvav Kal TzalSag Kal 
yvvcuKag. But, in the case of adjectives, only those which contain no- 
thing homogeneous in their idea ; as, dv6p6novg evpyaecg Kal dyaOovg, 
Kal KaKOvg, or Kal izevrjrag Kal irTiovalovg, and the like ; not iroXtg koZ 
fj,eyd?i7] Kal T^oT^vdvdpwKog, but [itydXt] re koX TvoTivdvOpconog, 

HEP. 
Ilep is an enclitic, and in signification closely allied to ye. It denotes, 
conformably to its derivation from irepi, comprehension or inclusion, and 
hence, like ye, it is employed to strengthen single ideas. It very fre- 
quently enters into combination with relative pronouns, as also with tem- 
poral, causal, and conditional particles, to confirm their signification. 
The sense of this particle is generally, as in the case of ye, indicated in 
English merely by a stronger intonation of the word, although it may 
frequently also be translated by ^^ very,^^ "ever." In combination with 
a participle we often translate it by " although'''' or " how much soever J''' 
Thus, Xiyei^ dnep Xeysc, dcKaia ndvTa, " Ae says all, whatever he does 
sayj justly ;" fiyre cv t6v6\ dyadog nep ecjv, diroatpeo Kovp'qv, " Nor do 
thou, excellent though thou art, deprive him of the virgin;''^ i. e., be thou 
never so excellent, however excellent thou art ; evQvg Tropeverac irpo^ 



208 CONJUNCTIONS. 

Kvpov yTTsp elxeVf ^^ He proceeds straightway unto Cyrus j just as he 

was^ 

1. The particle 7ri5f, when circumflexed, is interrogative, and signi- 
fies ** how V The combination ttw^ yap is employed as an emphatic neg- 
ative, '■^ not at ally Thus, rrug yap 'koltjgo)^ " I will 7iot do it at all,^^ 
literally, "/or how shall I do it ?" In the same way Kal rrug is used ; 
as, Kal TTcjf GLCJTiC) ] *' / cannot be silent,''^ literally, " and how am I to be 
silent ?'* 

3. As an encUtic, ttw^ signifies " somehow^''^ ^^in some degree^'''' &c. ; 
as, aTiTicjg Trwf, *' in some other way ;" u6e nug, ^''somehow thus^^^ 6cc. 

1. The particle 6g is sometimes used for Iva, to denote a purpose ; 
as, uc ^el^cj/iev, " in order that we may show^ Occasionally, as in the 
case of Iva, the word is omitted, the purpose of which is to be expressed ; 
as, (jj£ (5' akTjdfj 7^eyo)y Kokei juol rovg /idprvpag. " But that thou mayst 
see that I speak the truths call for me the loitnessesy 

2. It is also used for bn^ with the meaning of " that ;" as, "keyovTe^y 
6)f kKelvog ye ov TroXe/iel ry Troket. " Saying, that he does not make 
war upon the city.^^ 

3. It is also used with the meaning of " as,'* which is its more ordi- 
nary acceptation. Sometimes the tragic writers repeat the word that 
precedes o)c when signifying " as," and this is done when the speaker, 
from unpleasant recollections, does not choose to be more precise. 
Thus, olcolev G)g okcjkev, ^^ He has perished as he has perished;''^ i. e., 
he has perished ; no matter how. 

4. With the acute accent, it is used in the sense of ovrcdg, and then 
stands at the beginning of propositions. This usage is very frequent in 
Homer ; as, L)g elircov. We must be careful, however, not to confound 
cjg for ovTugy with (l)g changed to cog because followed by an enclitic, nor 
with ug placed after a word on which it depends, and receiving in con- 
sequence the tone or accent ; as, i^eof wf, *' as a god." 

5. It is often used in exclamations, with the signification of " how ;'*^ 
as, (Jf GE /LtaKapl^ofiev ! *' How happy we deem you /" jiporolg epureg ug 
KaKov jiEya ! " How great an evil is love to mortals /" On this is found- 
ed the use of L)g with optatives, in the sense of the Latin utinam, *' 1 
wish ;" as, ojg // ocpel' "Efcrop Krelvac ! '* Would that Hector had slain 
me .'" literally, " how Hector ought to have slain me .'" 

6. It is put, like ore, before superlative adjectives and adverbs, and 
strengthens the meaning; as, cjg raxLora, " as quickly as possible,'''* 



CONJUNCTIONS. 209 

7. In many cases o)c came to be regarded as nothing more than a mere 
strengthening particle, and hence we have the idioms, d)g dTiTjOcJ^y '* tru- 
iy;" cjf drexvcjgj ^^ entirely ^^^ &c. 

8. It is often used in limiting propositions with the infinitive ; as, wf 
EtKaGat, ^^ as far as one may conjecture ;^^ ug efioiye doKelv^ '■'' as far as 
appears to me at least ;''"' ug ecKaaac, " as far as one may conjecture ;" 
cjf elTTCLv, ^^ so to speaky 

9. It is frequently found in this same sense with prepositions follow- 
ing ; as, ug air' ofifidrov, " to judge hy the eye ;" o)g km to ttoAv, "/or 
the most part^ Hence it is often used in comparisons ; as, dniGtov 
TO TilfjBog XiyETai d-KoTiEodaL, ug irpog to jutyeOog Trjg izoTieoyg. " An in- 
credible number are said to have perished, in proportion to the size of the 
cityy 

10. It is elegantly joined to participles in the genitive absolute, and 
the participle must then be rendered, in English, by a tense of the verb ; 
as, ug TavTTjg Tyg x^P<^^ exvpuTaTTjg ovarjg- " Because this place was the 
most secure.'''' Sometimes, also, it is connected with the accusative or 
dative of the participle. In these constructions with the participle, 
whether in the genitive, dative, or accusative, it has the force of asj 
since, because, inasmuch as, as if, &c. 

11. It also has the meaning of " when,'''' as a particle of past time ; 
as, ug 6e rjWe, " but when he came.^^ And sometimes, also, the force of 
*^ while. ''^ 

12. With numerals it signifies " about ,•" as, o)g TeaaapaKOVTa, '' about 
forty;''^ o)g Tpiarj TETTapa CTadia, ^^ about three or four stadia.'''' 

13. It is sometimes put, especially by Attic writers, instead of the 
preposition Eug, npog, or km. In truth, however, the preposition in such 
instances must always be regarded as understood, wliile cog retains in 
translation nothing of its original meaning. It must be remarked, how- 
ever, that cjg, when put for slg, izpbg, or km, is generally found with per- 
sons, and seldom with inanimate things. The primitive meaning of cjg 
TTpSg, 6g Etg, &c., is " as towards,''^ ^^ as to,'''' and the particle serves to 
indicate that the preposition must not be taken in a strict and definite 
sense. Hence, when ug alone appears, with the preposition understood, 
it always implies that the approach is made with some degree of timidity 
or reverence. Thus, wf Tovg -d-EoiJg, '* unto the gods ;" ug tov jiaGtlEa, 
*' to the king.'''' In this lies the reason why ug is seldom ever construed 
in this way with the names of places or things, but generally with ani- 
mate objects. 

S2 



210 PREPOSITIONS. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

I. Prepositions, in Greek, govern the genitive, dative, or 
accusative. Some govern only one case, others two cases, 
and others, again, three ; as follows : 

Genitive only. 
'AvTi, 'Atto, 'E/c or 'E|, and Ilpd. 

Dative only. 
'Ev and Hw. 

Accusative only. 
'E.lg or 'Ef. 

Genitive and Accusative. 
Aid, Kara, and 'Trrep. 

Dative and Accusative. 

Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. 

'Afjicpi, 'Ent, Msrd, Uapd, Uepi, Upog, 'Tito, 

II. We will now proceed to illustrate by examples the 
force of each, arranging them according to the cases which 
they respectively govern. 

I. Prepositions governing the 
Genitive. 

1. The fundamental idea of the genitive is that of sep- 
aration or abstraction, of going forth, from, or out of any- 
thing. 

2. The prepositions, therefore, that are combined with 
the genitive, carry with them the general meaning of pro- 
ceeding from something ; though, strictly speaking, the ideas 
of out of SLiiifrom, lie primarily in the genitive case itself. 



PREPOSITIONS. 211 

*AVTC. 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition was ^' against,''^ ^^ con- 
trary to^ It has lost, however, its original signification, except in the 
case of compounds ; as, avrcrdTTeLV, *' to place over against ;^^ avrtXi' 
ysiv, " to contradict y 

2. The secondary meanings of avTt, deducible from the primitive 
meaning, are ** instead ofj^^ *^for,^^ and refer to the relations of exchange, 
purchase, value, &c., where the objects referred to are supposed to be 
set opposite or over against each other, and their respective value thus 
estimated. Hence we have the following examples : dovXcg avrl paGil- 
iuQj " a slave instead of a king ;" avO' wv, '*/or which reasons'^'' (on which 
account). 

'Atto. 

1. The leading meaning of this preposition is ^^froniy^'' and it has ref- 
erence either to place, time, or the assigning of the origin or cause of a 
thing. I. The relation of place ; as, airo x^ovbg^ ^'•from the ground ;*' 
d<^' LTTTTuVy ^^ from on horsehack.^^ 11. The relation of time ; as, yevea- 
6ac aiTO deiirvov, " to have done supper''"' (to be from supper) ; Tzivetv cltzo 
Tov GLTLOv, " to drink just after eating^'' (to drink from eating). III. 
The assigning of the origin or cause ; as, otto SiKacoavvrjc, ^^from a 
love of justice ;" 'Ke(fivev inf apyvpeoio ptolo, " he slew him ly means of 
a silver how;'''' ol anb Tfjg CTodc, ^^ the Stoics^^ (the philosophers /rom 
the porch) ; ol and Il/larwvof, ^* the Platonics, ^^ &c. 

2. It must be borne in mind, that, when ano refers to place, it denotes 
the place at or near which any one was ; whereas the place within is ex- 
pressed by eK. 

1. 'Ek (before a vowel k^) has for its leading signification " out o/," 
^^frorn,^^ and serves to indicate a choice out of several objects, or to de- 
note a whole consisting of many parts. It may be viewed, like ano, 
under the three relations of place, time, and the assigning of origin and 
cause. I. The relation of place ; as, ek rrjg Trd^fwf, " out of the city,'''' 
which presupposes that one has been in the city, whereas cltto rfjg tto- 
Xewf merely implies that one has been near the city. II. The relation 
of time ; as, e/c rivog xp^vov, '^ since a certain time ;" k^ ov, " since^^ 
(supply xpovov). III. The origin or cause ; as, to. ek izarpog irpoarax' 
devra, ** the things commanded hy a father ;'' h^ h[ieo, " through me^* 
(by my means or authority). 

2. The following examples, faUing under some one or other of the 



212 PREPOSITIONS. 

three relations to which we have just referred, deserve to be noticed : 

£K T^aXaTTTjgj *' on the side towards the sea ;" ef ew, *' at dawn ;" k^ Tjfii- 
pac, " since it became day ;" ck tuv ^cdOTrjpuv (^topelv (pcdTiagy " to carry 
cups suspended to the girdles^'' (the point of suspension commencing 
with or arising out of the girdles) ; ek tov irodog Kpefidaac nvdy " to 
hang one by the foot ;" kn GKrjnTpiov odotTzopelv, " to travel by meaiis of 
staves ;" XajujSdvstv inTrov ek Tfjg ovpag^ " to take a horse by the tail ;" 
yeXdv e/c tuv npoGBev daKpvoVy " to laugh after tears ;" e/c tov kftipa' 
voOCj ^^ openly ;^^ ek tov a^avovg, ^'•unawares;'*'' k^ dnpoadoKyTov, ^^un- 
expectedly ^ 

Tipo. 

1. The primitive meaning of 7rp6 is " before,'^'' and it may be consid- 
ered under the three relations of place, time, and preference. I. The 
relation of place ; as, irpb dlluVy " before others ;" Trpo TroAewf, " before 
the city.'''' II. The relation of time ; as, Tovra Tcpo ttjc TiELGicnpdTov 
ijTitKLag ejeveto. " These things happened before Pisistratus came of 
age^ III. The relation of preference ; as, ovdelg ovrog dvoTjTog egtiv, 
oGTig TToTiEfMov TTpo EcpTJvTjc alpELTaiy " No ORC IS SO fooHsh as to prefer 
war to peace''' (literally, " who makes choice to himself of war before 
peace) ; irpb izoXkov iroiElGdac, *' to value highly''^ (to value before 
much), &c. 

2. Hence arise the following examples : fidx^odai irpo Ttvog, " to fight 
for one,'''' because he who fights for one places himself before him. So 
vavfzaxEELV Trpo Tfjg IlEXoTrovvyGov, ^Uo fight a naval battle for the Pel- 
oponnesus ,*'* ddlEVEiv TTpo dvaKTog dfiEcTilxov, " to toil on account of a 
cruel king.^^ 

II. Prepositions governing the 
Dative. 

1. The fundamental idea of the dative is directly opposed 
to that of the genitive, since in the dative the idea of ap- 
proach lies at the basis ; or, in other words, it serves to in- 
dicate the more remote object. 

2. This general idea of approach branches off into the 
kindred ideas, 1. of union or coming together ; 2. of like- 
ness ; 3. of advantage or disadvantage, 

3. The dative also denotes, as consequences of the same 
general idea, 1. the instrument or means for effecting any- 



PREPOSITIONS. • 213 

thing ; 2. the manner ; 3. the cause; 4. d. particular or def- 
inite time. 

The primary meaning of this preposition is " in," as indicative of 
place ; as, kv ralg 'A-OrivaLg, " in Athens ;" hv Tofzy, " in Rome.^^ 
From this primary use in definitions of places, the following construc- 
tions are derived, which accord in part with the English or Latin idiom * 
I. To denote the person or thing on which, as its substratum, the ac- 
tion is performed ; as, kTrtdetKvvGdac tv tlvl, *' to show in the case of a 
certain one^ II. Among several ; as, hv ^Kpyeioig, '* among the Ar- 
gives ;^^ kv adavdroig, ^'^ among the immortals^ III. kv (poSo) elvac^ 
** to he in fear ;'''' kv bpyy elvac, ^' to he in a rage with any one f^ kv 
aLGXvvaig exetv, ^^ to he ashamed;'^'' kv kXacjipo) notelGdai, ^^ to make 
light ofy IV. Referring to clothing, array, &c. ; as, kv ^lvgj Tikovrog, 
" in the skin of a lion ;" kv TreXraLg, aKovTiocgf ro^ocg ScayovL^eGdaiy 
** to contend, equipped with shields, spears, hows ;" kv GTe(l)dvoigy 
" adorned with chaplets.''^ V. Denoting a means or cause on which 
something depends ; as, rd fikv irporepov irpaxOevra kv oXkaig izoTJkalg 
kniarolalg lore, " Ye know the things previously done through many 
other letters ;" kv vofzodiracg -^kadaL vS/llov, " to enact a law hy means 
of the nomothetcB,'''' &ic, 

^vv, 

1. The primary meaning of this preposition is ^^with,'''' denoting ac- 
companiment ; as, TTOT^is) Gvv evdaifiovL, " with a happy lot ;" gvv tlvl 
elvac, ^^to he in company with any one ;" gvv rolg "YiTCkfjGi [idXXov 7f 
avv TL) jSapSdpG) elvat, ^^ to he on the side of the Greeks rather than of 
the harharian ;" gvv tu gg) dyaOu, " to thy advantage ,•" gvv tu 0ecj, 
" with the assistance of the Deity y 

2. Hence it also expresses a mean, which, as it were, accompanies 
the effect; as, toI Kal gvv fidxacg SlgirSXtv Tp6a)v izpddov, ^^Who twice j 
by means ofhattles, sacked the city of the Trojans.''^ 

III. Preposition governing the 
Accusative. 

1. The accusative denotes the immediate object upon 
which the action of a transitive verb is directed. 

2. All prepositions connected with the accusative denote 



214 PREPOSITIONS. 

a direction or extension to some point, a stretching, reach- 
ing, finishing, completing. Hence they designate particu- 
lar parts of the general relation expressed by the accusa- 
tive, and are added to the same for greater perspicuity and 
distinctness. 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is " into ;" as, eiarjWov 
^Ic T7JV TToTiiVy *' they entered into the city.^^ With this is connected the 
meaning of " to ;" as, luereveiv el^ nva, " to come as a suppliant to any 
one.^^ 

2. With the verbs " to say,^^ '^ to show,''^ the reference or direction to 
the persons, to whom anything is said or shown, is sometimes considered 
as analogous to an actual motion, and this analogy is expressed by elg ; 
as, ol Tvarepeg rcoXka 6?j kol KaTia spya a'K£(p7]vavT0 el^ Trdvrag av6p6- 
irovg. " Your fathers exhibited many and honourable deeds before all 
meny Hence it frequently signifies '•^with respect to," a general refer- 
ence, which in English is often expressed by the more definite " on ac^ 
count of," '* in consequence of ;" as, ^oBeladai elg re, *' to be alarmed on 
account of anything ;" SvcFTvxelv elg n, ^^ to be unfortunate on any ac- 
count ;" Xoidopelv rtva elg tc, " to blame one on any account." 

3. The idea of a direction or relation lies also at the foundation of the 
following combinations ; as, elg aizaTCkayag KaKov, ^'•for a deliverance 
from evils ;" eSrjaav eg avdpelov, " they displayed valour;" elg ravrov 
Tjnetv; " to be in the same circumstances ;" kg togovtov, " so far" or " so 
much," &c. 

4. In definitions of time elg has several meanings. I. " Towards ;" 
as, elg eairepav, ** towards evening." II. Duration ; as, elg evtavTov^ 
^''-for a year." III. A point of time; as, eg rjib, ''''at dawn." It is 
joined also frequently with adverbs of time ; as, elg uira^, " once ;" elg 
aei, ''''for ever" &c. 

5. With numerals elg sometimes signifies " about ;" as, vavg eg rag 
TeTpaKooiag, *' about four hundred vessels ;" and sometimes it makes 
them distributive ; as, elg dvo, *' bini" 

6. Frequently the noun which is governed by elg is understood, and 
it is then put with the genitive which is dependant upon that noun ; as, 
elg AlyvTrroLo (supply f)6ov) ; elg diSaaKaltov (supply dufiara). This is 
especially the case with the names of deities ; as, elg 'ApTefitdog, ** to 
Biana^s" (supply lepbv). So in Latin, ventum est ad Cereris^ scil. tcm- 
plum- 



J'REPOSITIONS* 215 

iV. Prepositions governing the 
Genitive and Accusative. 

Aid. 

1. The primitive meaning of 6td is " through^ With the genitive 
this meaning may be considered under two relations : I. Of space and 
time ; II. Of cause and means. 

2. I. The relation of space and time ; as, to eyxoc rf^Qt Sta tov i9^w- 
paKogy " the spear went through the corslet ;" St' bXtyov elvaCj ^^ to he 
within a little distance of ;'''' Trorafiog dia irevre GTadicov ava(j)atv6f/,evog^ 
*'a river appearing five stadia ojf ;" ^lcl juaKpov xpovov, ^^ after a long- 
time ;" 6c* evdeKarov ereog^ " eleven years after y But frequently, with 
ordinals, it expresses the recurrence of an action after a certain period of 
time ; as, dia rpirov ereog^ " every third year ;" 6C kvdrQv Ereog^ '' every 
ninth year^ 

3. II. The relation of cause and means ; as, 6C eavTov, *' by his own 
means ;" St* ayyzkuv Myetv^ " to announce by means of messengers ,•" 
6ta Tuv b^daTiuCjv opdv, " to see by means of the eyes,^^ &c. 

4. With the Accusative Sea is again to be considered under two 
relations : I. The relation of place ; II. The relation of cause. 

5. I. Tlie relation of place ; as, Sea ttovtlov Kv/Ltd TTopevecdai, " to go 
through the ocean wave ;" dio, Safiara, " throughout the mansion."*^ II. 
The relation of cause ; as, dta tovto^ " on this account ;" dia rov^ ev 
fiaxofxevovg Kptvovrac at [laxaf^, " battles are decided by those who fight 
bravely.'''' 

Kara, 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition denotes a downward di^ 
rection towards an object. Hence we have, in the genitive, Kara cKo- 
'jTov To^evELv, ''Ho shoot at a mark,''' because the arrow, proceeding in a 
curve, descends to the mark ; Kara K6pf)7}g tvtttelv, " to strike at the 
head,''' i. e., down against. Hence is deduced the signification ^^with 
respect to," which frequently, however, may be rendered ^^ against.'"* 
Thus, Kara rtvog Eiizelv^ " to say something with respect to any one,'''' 
oij if this be prejudicial, " to say something against one.''' So also ipev- 
deaOat Kara rov Qeov, " to say something falsely of the Deity," or "^o 
speak falsely against the Deity." On the contrary, fieyccTTov aaS' v/xcjv 
h/KCJUcov, '* the greatest compliment paid you," literally, '■^with regard 
to you" ^^upon you.'^ 

2. Kara is used, especially with the genitive, to denote motion from 
above downward, and then answers to the Latin de. Thus, (3^ 6e Kaf 



216 PREPOSITIONS. 

OvXvjLLTTOLO KapTJvov, *' hc wcut dowu from the summits of Olympus ,-" 
Kar* bcpOaTijucJv kSx'^t' ^A'^'^fj " darkness was poured down over his 
eyes ;" Kaf uKpag, ^'■from the top downward^'''* speaking of the destruc- 
tion of cities, whereas the Latins say '■^funditus delere^ Hence Kara 
X^^poq vSup dtdovai, " to pour ivaler upon the hands ;" Kara yfjg levac, 
^^ to go beneath the earths 

3. The following phrases are to be noticed : evxeoOat Kara jSoo^, " to 
TOW an ox ;" €vx£(y6aL KaO' kKaTOfiSrjg^ " to vow a hecatomb.'''' In such 
constructions as these the idea is implied of a vow offered down upon 
(i. e., resting upon) something as its basis. In the following, Kad' lepijv 
bfioaat, *' to swear by the victim,'''' the reference is plainer, for the party 
is supposed, according to the Grecian custom, to touch the victim at the 
time of making the oath. 

4. With the Accusative Kara chiefly indicates "a^ relates to,'*^ 
*' according to^ Thus, Kara rov fiavrr/tov aTroKptoLVj " as regards the 
answer of the oracle ,*" ra Kara Havaavcav Kal Qe/LLtaroKMa, " the things 
relating to Pausanias and Themistocles.''^ 

5. From this general meaning several others are deduced. Thus, " on 
account of ;'''* as, Kara ro exOog ro AaKedai/LLovtuv, " on account of his 
hatred towards the Lacedcemonians,^^ literally, ^' in accordance with^ 
Hence it is often put with verbs of motion, in order to show the object 
of them ; as, Kara 7\,rjtrjv eKnX6aavreg, '' having sailed out in quest of 
plunder,'''' literally, " with reference to.''^ 

6. Kara is also joined with the accusative to denote similitude, cor- 
respondence, suitableness, &c. ; as, Tzarepa re koI [irjrepa evpyGecg ov 
Kara MLOpaddrrjv Kal rrjv yvvalKa avrov, " You will find your father as 
well as mother very different people from Mithradates and his wife,^'' lit- 
erally, '' not in accordance with^ So also Kar' k/LiavrSv, '' of the same 
kind as myself ;'''' oi KaO* yjuag, ^^men of our station,'''' '•'' of our charac- 
ter,'''' and also ** our contemporaries. '*'' And again, with comparatives ; 
as, fiel^ov, 7] Kaf avdpcoirovj vocelg, " You are labouring under a mal- 
ady worse than man can bear.'''' 

7. Kara is likewise joined with the accusative in definitions of place ; 
as, Kara orparov, " in the army ;" Kar* "Apyoc, " in Argos ;" Kara yrjv, 
'•'■by land ;" Kara rov nlovv, ^^on the voyage ;" Kara ^cjKatrjv rzokiv, 
** near the city of Fhocaa.'''' Hence in Homer, x^oiievog Kara dvfiov, 
** enraged in soul.^'' 

8. It also appears in definitions of time ; as, Kara rov irolefiov, " at 
the time of (or during) the war ;" Kara rov Kara Kpotcrov xpovov, *' in 
the time of Crcesus.''^ Hence ol Kad' 7jfJ,dc, *' our contemporaries,'''' men- 
tioned in <^ 6. 

9. With numerals, Kara serves to express the same as the Latin dis- 



PRE^OSltlONS. 211' 

tributives. Thus, KaO* Iva^ " one hy one,'''' '* singly ;" Kad' iirTa, " seve7i 
at a time ;" and without numerals ; as, Kara jLLTjva, *' every month ;" Kaf 
EVLavToVf ^^ every year ;^^ Kara iToTieig, ^^by cities f'' Kara KUjiag, ^^hy 
villages^'' &c. 

10. It is often with its case expressed by an adverb in English ; as^ 
Kara fiolpavy '^properly,'''' '•^ fitly ;'*^ Kara fiiKpov, ''^gradually;'*'' Kara 
KpdroCy ^' vehemently,''^ with all one's might; Kara vrd^a, ^''quickly,'''* 
*' immediately,'''' &c. 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is ^^ ahove,^'* ^^ over,'''' 
*' heyondy Thus, 6 7]%L0g virep TjfiiJv aul tiov ariycJv 'Kopsvofievog, " the 
sun moving above us and our dwellings ;" vnep izoXkibv, *' beyond many.^^ 
Hence also it is employed in speaking of the sites of towns and places 
on rivers or the sea, because they are higher than it ; as, ?[,Lfi7jv Kal iroTiig 
VTTep avrov, " a harbour, and a city upon ity 

2. From the primitive meaning is deduced that of ^^for,^^ "m behalf 
of,^^ when a person is supposed to go, as it were, in front of or beyond 
another, and occupy a place which the latter would otherwise have been 
compelled to fill ; and in this way to act for or in behalf of that one. 
Thus, d-vecv vnep rrjc TroXeug, " to sacrifice in behalf of the state ;" fidx- 
sad at VTzep Tivog, " to fight for one ;" Ti/iupeiv virep rivog, *' to punish 
for oney Hence Sedchai vnep rivog, " to fear for one^ 

3. Connected with this is the meaning " on account off as, eptdoc 
v7T€p, " on account of strife ,*" dXysuv vTrep', '* on account of sorrows ;'* 
VTTEp Toi) fiTj TTOtelv TO TTpoGTaTTOfitvov, ^^ in Order not to do what was 
ordered^ 

4. From the same source arises also the meaning ''/or the sake of*^ 
as used in prayers. Thus, Kat [zlv vnep Trarpbg Kal firjrspog Kal tskeoc 
"ktcaeo, " and entreat him for the sake of his father, and mother, and off- 
spring ^ 

5. With the accusative, vnep has the meaning of " over,''"' as in the 
genitive ; as, ()L7:rE0VGi vnep rov do/zov, " they fling it over the house f^ 
and also the force of "aJove;" as, vnlp rd reGGeprjKovra errj, ^^ abode 
forty yearsy So, also, vTrep fiopov, " more than destiny requires,'''' liter- 
ally, " above destiny ;" virep Xoyov, " above all description^ 

V. Preposition governing the 
Genitive and Accusative. 

'kvd. 
1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is directly opposite to 
that of «ardj and denotes motion upward. Hence its original significa- 



218 PREPOSITIONS. 

tion is "?/^," " up (m," &c. This, however, seldom occurs, and deriv- 
ative meanings are more commonly found. 

2. 'Avd governs a dative in the epic and lyric poets only ; as, xp^^^^ 
(iva GK7/7rTp(f)y " 071 the top of a golden sceptre ;" ;^pvffeatf uv' Imroigf 
** in a golden chariot,^^ carrying with it the idea of being mounted on 
high ; €v6el 6' dva okcltttu) Aloc aerof, " the eagle sleeps on the sceptre 
of Jove,^^ i. e,, on the top of the sceptre; dva vavGLV, ^^in ships,^^ i. e,, 
up on ships. 

3. Elsewhere it governs the accusative, and expresses, 1. A duration 
or continuance, both of time and space ; as, dvd rov izoleiiov tovtov, 
" throughout this whole war,'''' i. e., up along this whole war ; dvd irdaav 
r^fiepav, " daily ;" dvd dufxa, " throughout the mansion.'''* 

4. With numerals it makes them distributive ; as, dvd nevre, ^^five 
at a time;" dvd Tzivre Trapaadyyag Tjjg yfiepag, ^^five parasangs each 
day:' 

VI. Prepositions governing the 
Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. 

'kfi^i, 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is ^^ aroundy^^ " about^^^ 
" round about.'*'' 

2. With the Genitive, a/z^i has its primitive meaning ; as, ol 
dfKfi ravTTig oIkovctc rijg TToTaogj " who dwell around this city ;" with 
this same case also it has the signification of '* concerning^" which it 
shares with nept ; as, dTroTrefinofiat evvvxov oijjtv, dv irepl Tzacdbg kfiovj 
dii(fi IVo\v^£LV7}Q TE (jflXTjc '^vjaTpoC) 6C ovEcpuv eISov " / turn me with 
horror from the nocturnal vision, which I saw in dreams concerning my 
son, and concerning my beloved daughter Polyxena." 

3. With the Dative it signifies " about" in answer to the question 
" where V even when the whole thing is not covered ; as, a//02 irTiEvpal^ 
fMaGxaltarTJpac f^dXe, ^^ fling the broad bands of iron around his sides ;" 
ISpcoaeL fiev tev reXafiiov dfKJ)! cttjOegglv, " the strap shall be moist with 
perspiration around the breast of each one." 

4. Sometimes the case which is governed by the preposition docs not 
express the thing about which something else is, but that which is about 
the latter ; as, dfi<fl nvpl oTrjaat rpcTToda, *' to set the tripod on the fire, 
so that the latter blazes around it;" dfKpl k?m6oi^ E^sadat, ^Ho sit sur- 
rounded with boughs." Hence, when a place is only generally expressed ; 
as, rjptTrE 6' dfi^^ avru), *' he fell beside him ;" dficpl rpaTri^aig Kpea dLsSd- 
oavTo, ^' they divided the flesh around the table," i. e., the table where 
several sat, consequently in different places ; dfji<fl divatg EvptiroVy " near 
the eddies of the Euripus." 



PREPOSITIONS. 219 

5. It has also with the dative the signification of " concerning ^'''^ whence 
are deduced the kindred meanings, " on account of,'''' " about,'^ *' through^''^ 
«&c. Thus, Tovg fxev 'Arpeiduv Kara, rovg 6' afif 'OSvaaetj " some 
against the Atridce, and some about Ulysses ;" roiyd' afj,(j)l yvvatid tto- 
?ivv xpovov akyea ndcxstv^ " to suffer woes for a long time about such 
a womany Hence aji^l rdpSet, " through fear. ^^ 

6. With the Accusative d/Kpt denotes " about,'''' in answer to the 
questions *' where V and " whither ?" as, aa^id' dficpl fSpaxcova Kov(j)i^o)Vy 
" wielding lightly the shield about his arm ;" dfKJ)! ipdjufxadov eKfSeSX^a- 
6aL, *' to be cast out into the sand,^^ so that the sand surrounds the body ; 
d//^t Tt ex^cvy *' to concern one^s self about anything.^'' 

7. 'Afi(l)l frequently stands in this sense with the accusative, not to 
signify a surrounding, but only to denote a place generally. Thus, dfiipc 
re darv spdo/Ltev Ipd -^eolatVy " we offer sacrifices to the gods throughout 
the whole city,'''' i. e., all around throughout the city. So aficfl Qpy/cyvy 
*' anywhere in Thrace,^^ i. e., in the whole of Thrace, round about. 

8. To this head belongs the phrase ol dfidl or Trepl riva. It means, 

I. The person signified by the proper name, with his companions, 
followers, &c. ; as, fcal ol dficj)! TlEiGLGrparov aTZLKVEOVTac km 
TTjg 'AdTjvatrjc Ispov, " and PisistratuSy with his troops, comes to 
the temple of Minerva,'''' So ol irepl QpacvSov'kov, " Thrasy- 
bulus with his followers ;" ol dficj)! 'Opcpia, " Orpheus with his 
scholars,'''' &c. 

II. Sometimes this phrase signifies merely the person whom the 
proper name expresses, but only in later writers. Thus, Ar- 
rian, Exp, Al. p. 385, ol dficj)! Kparepov, " Craterus ;" and 
again, JElian, V. H. 1, 16, ol d/LKJ)! tov Kptrcova Kal ^iiifiiav 
Kal ^atdova, " Crito, and Simmias, and Phcedo.''^ This usage 
occurs particularly in the later grammarians. 

III. Sometimes the phrase denotes principally the companions 
or followers of the person indicated by the proper name, the 
latter being merely mentioned in order to express the former 
more definitely. Thus, Xen. Hist. Gr. 7, 5, 12, ol Trepl 'Ap- 
Xi^cLfjLov, " the companions of Archidamus .''^ 

1. The prhnitive meaning of km is '* upon,^^ whence various kindred 
meanings arise. 

2. With the Genitive it signifies *' on," '' a^," " tw," or ^^near;^* 
as, km Tuv KOLvuv rijc irSTieug jSco/iuv, ** upon the public altars of the 
city ;'''' km Kparbg ?u/j,Evogy " at the head of the creek;'''' kareiJTeg km ruv 



220 PREPOSITIONS. 

•&v(>EQV^ " Standing near the door^ Hence the phrase em tuv to/iiqv 
hfivvvai, " to sta7id near and swear by the entrails^ 

3. It is also used in answer to the question *' whither V as, tzXelv km 
^dfiovj " to sail towards Samos^^ (i. e., literally, " to sail upon Samos^^); 
km ^dpSecjv (ftevyetVj " to flee towards Sardis.^^ Hence oSog rj km Ka- 
ptr/C (pipovaaj '' the road that leads to Caria,^^ 

4. In definitions of time km has the meaning of " during y^^ " under y^^ 
&c. ; as, km KeKpoTcoCy *' during the time of Cecrops^^ (i. e., resting 
upon this period as a species of base) ; eTr* elpjjvTjc, ^^in time of peace f* 
km Tcov TjfjLETepuv TTpoySvcjVy " in the days of our forefathers.^^ 

5. It has frequently also the force of the Latin dey and denotes " o/," 
" concerningy'' &c. ; as, bizep km tuv SovXcjv kMyofieVy " what we were 
remarking concerning the slaves'''' (literally, "were speaking upon the 
subject of the slaves"). 

6. With the verbs " to namcy'' ** to he namedy^ &c., it has the mean- 
ing of " after y^ ^^ from ,*" as, bvofid^ecrdat km rcvogy " to be named after 
one''* (literally, ** to be named upon one"). 

7. It often expresses a connexion, accompaniment, provision, &c., 
either with things or with persons ; as, km GfitKpuv "kbymVy " with a few 
words ;" Kadfjaro Kddfzov Tiaoc d(7wiSov eiriy " the people of Cadmus had 
sat down arrayed with shields ;^' km irpoGiTolov fzcdc x^^P^^'^t " ^<> §f> 
accompanied by a single maid-servant. '''' Hence is deduced the mean- 
ing of '* before ;" as, km fiaprvpuVy " before witnesses ;" kmofioaavTO 
km rdv cTparriyuVy " they swore in the presence of the generalsy^^ &c. 

8. In this way the following phrases appear to have originated : kcj/ 
kavrovy " by himself y"* '•^peculiarly ;" km acpcjv avrCrVy " by themselves,'''' 
''^unmixed with othersy'' &c. Hence k(f iavTov oi/ce^v, when said of 
states, means " to live by themselvesy not dependant upon other Sy but hav- 
ing a constitution of their own.^^ 

9. 'Eni is also used in the genitive with numerals ; as, km Tptiov 
GTrjvaiy '''■to stand three deep ;^^ km TeacdpoVy ^^four deepf'* kf ivbg ^ 
KaTufSactg rjVy '^ the descent was by one at a time^ 

10. With the Dative km denotes, in particular, subordination, 
the being in the power of any one, &c. Thus, tuv ovtqv to. fikv karlv 
kf Tjfuvy TO. 6' ovK kf ijiMVy " of thc things that are, some are in our 
power (under our control), others are not in our power ;" km fiavreaiv 
elvaiy ^^ to be dependant upon soothsayers ;" ttocelv rt km rtviy " to sub- 
mit a thing to any one^s judgment ;" to kn* kfioiy " as far as depends 
upon me.'''* 

11. With the dative km also denotes condition, especially in the phrase 
£^' (J) or £0' ore, ^^upon condition.''* That also is regarded as a condi- 
tion, on account of which, in order to obtain it, something is done which 



PREPOSITIONS. 221 

is the price or the foreseen result of the action. Thus, km Supoic, " on 
account of promised gifts ;" dcjpc) km fceydXuy ^^for a large gift ;^^ km 
fi6ax(f) aScLVy '' to sing for the price of a calff^ km rovroig fiovotg C,7JVy 
*' to live upon condition of having this only ;" x^P^'^ dvadelvat 'AttoA- 
TiOVL km Trday depyla^ " to consecrate a territory to Apollo^ on condition 
of its remaining entirely uncultivated.^^ 

12. Hence it frequently expresses an object or aim, inasmuch as this 
is the condition upon which the action is performed. Thus, ^7 K?icJ7rec 
km drjTijjGeL (paveoGL v/iiv, " lest thieves appear to you in order to do you 
mischief i*"" ovk km rex'^y ifcaOeCy ^^you have not learned it in order to 
exercise it as a profession;^'' dyetv tlvu kwl d-avdr^, " to lead one away 
to execution*''^ 

13. From this is deduced the meaning "on account of '^^ as, (ppovelv 
km Tivty " to pride one^s self on account of anything ;^^ d^avfid^eGdac km 
TLVLf " to wonder on any account y^'' &c. 

14. Sometimes, also, it signifies " a/," as a definition of place ; as, 
km T(j "AXijKt TTOTafiC), *' at the river Alex ;" and sometimes it is em- 
ployed to express generally a combination or coexistence. To this lat- 
ter head belong the phrases Cv'^ ^^^ TratGiv, *' to live, having children;'*^ 
C,fjv kif IgocglVj ** to live upon a footing of equal rights with others ;" km 
dvcKksia, " with disgrace ;" nadfjGdai km daKpvGiy " to sit down in 
tears,^^ &c. 

15. Frequently km, when thus construed, signifies not so much a be- 
ing together as an immediate following upon, or connexion of time and 
space ; as, dveGTij kif avTu ^epav7\,a^, " Pheraulas arose immediately 
after him;^^ oyxvri kif oyxvr) yTjpaGKsc, ^^ pear after pear grows ripe.'''' 

16. In many cases km with the dative has the same or a similar sig- 
nification with the genitive ; as, km x^^'^U '' on the earth ;" km vvktl^ 
*' in the night, ''^ &c. 

17. With the Accusative km signifies particularly " upon^^ 
■ against,'''' in answer to the question " whither V in those cases where, 

in Latin, in is put with the accusative ; as, dvaBaiveiv kf lttttov, " to 
mount upon horseback ;^^ dvaSaiveLv km d^povov, " to ascend a throne;'''' 
km TLva /i7ix<ivdG6at, " to contrive against one^ So in km TToSa dvax- 
upELv^ " to retreat,'''' where the Greeks seem to have had in view the re- 
turn into the place which the foot previously occupied. Hence krcL is 
often put after verbs of motion with substantives which do not denote a 
place, but an action, which is the end of one's going ; as, Uvat km -^rj- 
pav, " to go upon a hunt;'''' ievac km vSup, " to go in quest of water ,*" 
km Ti, '•'to what endV ^'- wherefore V Sometimes, however, we find 
km with the accusative after verbs of rest, but then motion is always im- 
plied with the preposition. Thus, KeGdac km ti, " to go anywhere in 

T2 



222 PREPOSITIONS. 

order to seat one*s self there ;" KeladaL km aptaTepUj " to he carried io^ 
the left and lie there ;" km ra telxt] avrtnaperdGaovro, ** they were drawn 
up against them on the loalls,^^ where the idea of uvaSdvTsCj " having 
ascended^"*^ is implied in km rd reixv- 

18. With definitions of time it answers to the question " how long ?" 
as, km xpovov, ^^ for some time ,•" km dvo yfiepag^ '•^ for two days.^^ It 
is also used with definitions of space ; as, km reaaapaKovTa crddta, 
''''for the space of forty stadia.''^ With numerals it denotes ''^ about f^ 
as, km TptaKOGta, " about three hundred^ 

Mera. 

1. The leading idea in this preposition is connexion, either in a greater 
or less degree. It is weaker, however, in this respect than cvv. 

2. With the Genitive fierd signifies " with^^^ " together with ;'^ 
as, Kadfjcdat fierd ruv h7Cku>v^ " to sit down along with the rest^ Hence 
fierd TLvor dvaty " to be on any one^s side,''' With the words " to con- 
tend, fight, carry on war,''"' fxerd expresses the side which is favoujed ; 
as, k'Ko7i,£fi7jGav nerd tcov GVfifidxoyv TTpbg aXkifkovq, " they waged war 
along with their allies against one another. ^^ 

3. Hence arise various constructions, the basis of which is the idea 
of a connexion, which in other languages is differently expressed. Thus, 
fierd TToliTEtag elvat, ** to have a regular government ;" fierd rov Xoyov, 
" under the guidance of reason f fxerd rcjv vSfiuVy " agreeably to the 
laws;'''* fierd Ktvd'uvuVy ^^ in the midst of dangers;'*'' nerd 'Kaididg koI 
olvov, " in jest and drunkenness ^^ 

4. With the Dative it occurs in the poets only, with the meaning 
of *^ among, ^^ ^^with;^^ qls, fzsrd ds rptrdTOiaiv dvaaoev, *^ and he was 
reigning among the third (generation) ;" //era arparC>, ** among the 
army ;" vvv dk fied' v/isrepy dyopri y/aat, *' and now I am sitting amid 
your assembly y Hence arises the general meaning of "in;" as, irT)- 
SdTiLov fierd xepotv exovra, " holding the rudder in his hands ;" u'^Tirjp 
fiTjTLv vdatve fierd <ppeaiv, ** he wove another plan in mind/^ 

5. With the Accusative it denotes '* after,'''' of which instances 
everywhere occur. Thus, fierd ravra, " after these things ;" fierd rov 
uvOpcoTTOv, " after the man,'''' &c. Hence also 'iizEcdai fierd rtva, " to 
follow after oneV This literal following was transferred to a figurative 
following, or guiding one's self by the example of another. Thus, fierd 
cov Kal kfiov KTjp, " agreeably to thy sentiment and mine ;" fierd nXeog 
Ipxeodat, '* to go for glory,'''' i. e., where glory called him (//. 20, 227). 

6. It is likewise joined, by the Attics particularly, with ijfiepa alone, 
or with an ordinal number ; as, fie& ijfiipav, " in the daytime ;'' fierd 
Tpirrjv Tjfiipav, " on the third day^ 

\ 



PREPOSITIONS* 223 

?. In Homer especially it means " among'''' several, with plural or col- 
lective w^ords, both where motion and rest are expressed. Thus, (jleto, 
"KavTag ofirjltKagy " among all his companions in years ;" //e^ o/jllXov, 
" ammig the throng.'''' 

Ilapd, 

1. The primitive meaning of Tvapd is ^^ by the side of,^^ a signification 
which lies at the basis of all the other meanings assigned to this prepo- 
sition. 

2. With the Genitive it signifies "/rom" (i. e., from the side of), 
and expresses motion from a place ; as, (pdayavov kpvcaaro napd (iripov, 
" he drew his sword from his thigh;'''' irap' AlrjTao TzMovoa^ ^^ sailing 
from ^etesV Hence it denotes what originates and proceeds from 
something ; as, /ladelv irapd rtvod " to learn from any one ;" dyyiWEiv 
irapd Ttvog, " to gnnounce from any one.''^ 

3. So also in the expressions, ttGjo' kavrov didovat, " to give some- 
thing from his own substance;'''' Trap' avrov^ " by his command'''' (Xen. 
H. G. 2, 1, 27), &c. 

4. With the Dative it signifies '* with^^^ ** a/," in answer to the 
question " where V Thus, ^rjfiiog bg (f rjecde itapd fivrjGffjpGLv dvdyKr/^ 
^^ PhemiuSf who sang with the suiters (i. e., among them) through com- 
pulsion;''^ TTapa d-eolg Kal Trap' dvdpuTTOtg^ *' with gods and men.^' 

5. With the Accusative it signifies " ^o," ^'- towards^'' (i. e., to the 
side of) ; as, irapd vrjag 'AxatcbVj " towards the ships of the Greeks ;" 
Trapd KaftSvaeaj <' to Cambyses ;'''' irapd ttjv Ba6v?.C)va, " to Babylon.^^ 
It is frequently used thus in answer to the question ** where V but then 
the idea of motion is always implied in the preposition. Thus, ol fiev 
KotjuyaavTO irapd irpv/xvTJcjLa vrjog, ^Hhey on their part lay down to rest 
by the stern-fasts of the ship,^^ i. e., they went to and lay down by them. 

6. It often occurs with the meaning "in comparison with,^^ '•'•by the 
side of^^ ^^for.''^ Thus, opuv rd kirtTrjdevjLcara avrcjv h/yvOev irapd rd 
TL)V d?i?MV, *' seeing their objects of pursuit from near at hand in com- 
parison with those of the rest ;^^ ev irdp' kaXbv irrj^iara avvdvo daiovTai 
(SpoTolg dOdvaTotj ^^ for one piece of good fortune the gods bestow upon 
mortals a pair of evils ;" irapd rd dTCka ^0)a^ '* in comparison with the 
other animaW^ {Xen. Mem. 1, 4, 14). 

7. From the primitive meaning " by the side of'' are derived the fol- 
lowing phrases : irapd fZLKpov, *' almosV (by the side of little) ; irapa 
TTO/lv, '''' by faf (by the side of much), &c. 

8. It has also the meaning of " along,^^ which results directly from 
the meaning ^^by the side of ;^^ as, irapd -^Iva id-a/MGGTjc^ ^' along the 
shore of the sea ;" irapd vqag iivacy " to go alongside the ships'^ {Eunp, 



224 PREPOSITIONS. 

Bacch. 17), not, as elsewhere, " /o go towards the sMpsy Hence also 
of time, *^ during ^^^ ^^ throughout ;^^ as, reap' oXov rbv piov^ ^^ through 
one's whole lifey Especially when a definite point of time is expressed ; 
as, Tzapa rrjv ttoglVj '* m drinking ;" Trap' avra ru aStKyfiaray *' at the 
very momeiit of the unjust transaction^ 

9. It has also the meaning of *' against,'''' " contrary to,"* " otherwise 
than ;" as, napa do^av, " contrary to opinion ;" ivapa (pvaiv, " contrary 
to naturcj^^ &c. 

HepL 

1 . The primitive meaning of this preposition is " ahout,^^ <* aroundy^* 
from which are deduced various other significations. 

2. With the Genitive it answers most nearly to the Latin rfe, and 
denotes " o/," " concerning,''^ &c. ; as, Tzept Ttvog "keyuv, '* to speak 
concerning any one^ The most universal sense, howpver, is " with re- 
sped tOy^^ ^^as regards,''^ " in point of,^^ &;c. Thus, nepl fiiv 6ri f^pu- 
GECjg Kal TTocrewf, " as regards, then, eating and drinking ;" ovdel^ av- 
TcJv TiTiydeo^ nipt a^tog ovjuSlrjOf/vac egti, " no 07ie of them is worthy of 
being compared with it in point of size. ^^ 

3. The following phrases serve to express value; as, irotelaOat rt 
Tvepl rcoTCkov, " to value a thing highly,''^ i. e., in respect of much ; ifyeta' 
6ac TL TTEpL TrleioTov, *' to regard a thing as of the greatest value,^^ 1. e., 
in respect of very much. So, also, TroLEtadac n iTEpi ficKpov, " to set 
little value upon a thing ;" yyECGOat tl nEpt ovdEvSg, " to regard a thing 
as of no value. ''^ 

4. In Homer TVEpc often carries with it the meaning of superiority, 
and has the meaning of " above, ^^ &c. ; as, eOeTiel iTEpl ttclvtuv EfifiEvat 
vXki^iv, *' he wishes to he above all others ;" ol ivEpi jllev povTJrjv AavacJv, 
TTEpl d* EGTE fiuxEGdat, " yc who are superior to the rest of the Greeks in 
council, and superior in the fight.'''' Here fSovXrjv is governed, not by 
TTEpi, but by Kara understood. 

6. With the Dative it signifies ^^ about,^^ ^^ around,^^ ^^ on,''"' in an- 
swer to the question *' where V as, Tzepl Ty x^f-P^ ;^;pi'(TOvv 6aKTv?iL0V 
(l)EpELV, " to wear a golden ring on the hand :" often when something 
surrounds that which is in the dative ; as, iTEpl dovpl jjanaipEt, " he pant- 
ed around his lance,''"' i. e., on his lance ; nETZTura rchde izepl vEopftdvrtJ 
^L<^Ei, *' having fallen on this sword fresh sprinkled with blood.'''' So in 
the general designation of a place ; ivEpl liKairjot irv'Xriai, " in the neigh^ 
bourhnod of the Sccean gate.'' Hence probably in Herodotus (9, 101), 
UTf TTEpl MapdovLG) TZTaiari rj 'E/iPi-af, '' lest Greece strike on MardoniuSf 
as on a shoaW^ 

6. With the poets nepi with the dative signifies also '*/or," answer- 



PREPOSITIONS. 225 

ing to the Latin pro. ; as, izepl (p66(f)y ^^ for fear^'*'' i. e., from fear, prcs. 
metu. 

7. With the Accusative it signifies particularly " round aboutj^^ in 
answer to the questions " where ?" and " whither ?" as, '&6pa^ Trepl ra 
cTepva, " a corslet round ahout the breast.''^ It is here also used like 
ujLKpL, to denote not so much a surrounding as a place or region gen- 
erally. Thus, Trepl QeaaaXiriVy *' somewhere in Thessalyy" not " around 
Thessaly." 

8. It is often put also with definitions of time ; as, Tzepl rovrovg rovg 
Xpovovc, ** about this same time ;'* nepl irlrjOovaav dyopdv, " about the 
time when the market-place fills. ^^ With numerals also it signifies 
" about,'''* ^*- nearly f as, Tzepl Tpiaxi-^tovg, " about three thousand.''^ 

9. It signifies also " with regard to,^^ when it may be rendered ^' in," 
" o/," ^^ against ;^^ as, ajLLaprdvetv Trepl Tiva, ^^ to offend against any 
one ,*" dSiKog Trepl TLva, ** unjust towards one ;" (Hd(j>poveiv Tzepl tovc 
'd-eov^f " to be sound in one'^s belief as regards the gods^ 

Tlpog. 

1. The primitive idea expressed by this preposition is that of some- 
thing proceeding /?"om one thing towards another. 

2. With the Genitive it denotes '•^ from,'''' *'o/," "5?/;" as, TTpoQ 
yap AtSg ecGiv anavreg ^evol, ^^ for all guests are from Jove,'''' i. e., are 
protected by Jove ; Tcpog -^vfiov, " of one'' s free will,'''' i. e., cordially ; to 
TTOtev/Lievov npog AaKedaLfzovcuv, " what was done by the Lacedcemoniansy 

3. Hence result the following phrases : elvac TrpSg rcvog, " to be on 
any oner's side,''^ like the Latin stare ab aliquo; b kcrl rcpog ribv t/Sikt]- 
KOTov fiu7Jkov, " which is to the advantage rather of those who have acted 
wrongfully ;" to Tzpbg Keivov, '' that which speaks for him,'''' i. e., serves 
for his exculpation. Hence Tcpog dtKrjg tl exetv, for dlKatov elvai. So, 
also, TTpog Tvarpog, ^^ on the father'' s side ;" ol Tzpbg atuaTog, " the rela- 
tions by bloody 

4. It is often used with the genitive in entreaties and protestations ; 
as, TTpbg Tov gov Tenvov Kal '&eibv iKvovuac, " / supplicate thee by thy 
child and by the gods,'''' i. e., by every consideration proceeding from 
them. 

5. It has also the meaning of " towards ;" as, Tzpog Tzoliog, " towards 
the city'''' {II. 22, 198) ; Trpog [ieG7jfj,6pL7]g, " towards the South'^ {Herod. 
2, 99) ; Trpog rjliov Svcfieov, " towards the setting of the sun*^ {Id. 7, 
115). 

6. With the Dative it signifies chiefly either *' a^," " with,''^ in an- 
swer to the question ** where ?" as, Tvpbg T0VT(f) oXog elfil, ** I am wholly 
at this,'' i. e., wholly occupied with this ; Trpog tivl elvacy '' to ponder on 



226 PREPOSITIONS, 

anything:''^ or else it has the meaning of " hesides^''^ " in addition tof^ 
as, TTpog TovTOtCt " in addition to these things;''^ irpog kfiol Kal uol, ** be- 
sides thee and me." 

7. With the Accusative it has the signification of " ^o," in answer 
to the question " whither ?" as, direSTf irpoc fiaKpov "Olvfinov, " he de- 
parted to lofty Olympus ;" npoc Tzarepa tov gov, *' to thy father ^ Fre- 
quently, however, it expresses, generally, a direction to an object, with 
the meaning of " towardSy^^ " after ;" as, Tvpog rju t' ijt'kLov re, *' towards 
Aurora and the sun^^ i. e., towards the rising sun (//. 12, 239); Trpog 
^6(pov Tfepoevra, *' towards the dark West^^ {lb. 240). Herodotus, in this 
sense, often puts the genitive, as above, ^ 5. 

8. Sometimes it has the meaning of " on account of f'' as, Trpof uiv tt^v 
b'\j)iv TavTTjv, " on account, then, of this vision'^ {Herod. 1, 38) ; Tiiyetg 
6e dr) rt Kal irpbg tl ; " you say, then, what, and on what account V i. e., 
with what view (Plat. Hip. Min. p. 370, extr.). So, (poBetGdat Tzpog tl, 
^^ to be afraid on any accounf {Soph. Trach. 1211); "^avfid^etv Trpog 
Tl, ''''to wonder on any accounf {Id. (Ed. C. 1119) ; irpbc ovdiv, ^^ on 
no account ;" Trpog ravra, '* on this account,''^ &c. 

9. It has also, with the accusative, the meaning of ^^for,^^ ^^with re- 
spect to ;" as, KaXbg irpog SpSfiov, ^^ fair for running ;" relsog wpog dp- 
iTTjv, '* matured for virtue.''^ Hence it is particularly used in compari- 
sons ; as, dizLGTOv 7r?i7j6og ug Tzpog to jueyeOog Tijg TToTiSug, '* an incred- 
ible number for the size of the city,^^ literally, "in comparison with ;^* 
irepl T7JV Go^iav (^avXovg npog vjudg, " unfit for wisdom in comparison 
with you.''^ 

10. It also signifies '' according to,"*"* " conformable to,'''' '* after ;" as, 
^pbg TO. TOV Ba6v?iQVL0v f)7JfiaTa, " according to the words of the Baby- 
lonian;^^ TTpbg TavTTjv ttjv (pTjfiTjv, " in accordance with this prediction ;'* 
oi) TTpbg Tovg vfierepovg 7\.6yovg, " not taking your words for a pattern.'''' 

11. The idea of direction towards some particular object is the ground- 
work also of the following phrases : G^d^at irpbg bpdbv x^f^* 'kxt^Kelov 
Td(pov, ^Uo immolate, turning towards the lofty mound of Achilles^ tomb ;" 
StEKpWriGav TTpbg te 'kOrivatovg Kal AaKedatfiovlovg ol "E?^?ir/veg^ ^Uhe 
Greeks separated, and went over, some to the Athenians, others to the 
Lacedamonians y 

12. It has also, with the accusative, an adverbial sense ; as, TTpbg to 
Setvov, *' cruelly ;" TTpbg rb Kaprepov, *' violently ;" TTpbg evGeCeiaVj 
^^ piously ;^^ Trpbg piav, ^'•perforce;'''' TTpbg i/dovijv, ^^ willingly. ^^ 

13. With numerals it denotes ^'' about,''' ^^ nearly ;'''' as, TTpbg TerpaKQ* 
aiovg, ^^ about four hundred;" TTpbg haTov, ^'■nearly one hundred, ^^ 



PREPOSITIONS. 227 

*T7r<5. 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is ^^ under, ^^ a significa- 
tion which it often has with the genitive ; as, vtzo yijg, *' under the 
earth ;*' and often it signifies ''^ from under ;^^ as, vivo x^ovog t/ke (pScoa- 
dCf " he sent it from beneath the earth into the light. ''^ 

2. Like the Latin sub, it sometimes expresses proximity with a higher 
place ; as, vf upfiarogy *' near the chariot,^^ where the reference is to 
one who is standing on the ground, with the chariot erect by his side. 
Hence, figuratively, " below the chariot^ 

3. From the meaning of " undef^ is deduced that of " 5y," especially 
with passive verbs, the reference being to something under the influence 
of which a certain act is performed or result brought about. Thus, 
hizaLvelGdai vtzo Tivog, ^' to be praised by any one ,*" G(payElg vtt' klyia- 
6ov, ^^ immolated by jEgisthus ;^'* anodavelv viro rivog, ^^ to die by the 
hands of one ;" vtt' ayyk'kLiv iropeijeGdat, ^^ to go by reason of messen- 
gers ;" ue7J\,a vtto SpovrfjC Trarpog Acog eIgl TreSovde, " the tempest, by 
the thunder of father Jove, descends to the plain ;^^ vtto tcjv rpiaKovra 
k6v€cov TTiovTeg, " having drunk hemlock by command of the thirty.''^ 

4. From the two meanings of " under^^ and " Z)?/" combined seem to 
have arisen such phrases as the following : vno (popfxiyycdv xop^vetv, " to 
dance to the music of harps ;" vn' avXov KOfzd^ecv, " to revel to thefiute.''^ 
For here the preposition with its case appears to express, on the one 
hand, a kind of subordination, inasmuch as the subject of the action con- 
forms itself to the substantive which is governed by the preposition ; and, 
on the other hand, the action is effected, or at least defined, by the sub- 
stantive in the genitive, as in the construction of the passive with vno 
and the genitive. 

5. With the Dative it has often the same signification as with the 
genitive, as, for example, with passives in the sense of a or ab. Thus, 
a vKLGxvov aTroTETeTieGraL gol rjdrj, " what you promised have been now 
done by you ;" 7TpoG7T6?^OLC (pvAaGGErat, " he is guarded by his attend- 
antsy So, also, as with the genitive, 11770 dapBlTG) xopevECVy " to dance 
to the lyre,''"' &c. 

6. It often, in particular, when joined with this case, signifies " undery^ 
with the idea of subordination ; as, vtto tlvl elvac, ^^ to be under one,^^ 
1. e., obedient to one ; tzgleIv tc vtto tlvl, ^^ to submit anything to any 
one,'''' &c. 

7. With the Accusative it signifies '* under,^^ " ft/," analogous to 
the Latin sub, in answer to the question " ivhither ?" as, vno "1?[.lov rfk- 
Oev, "Ae came beneath Ilium,'''' i. e., under the walls of Troy. It is 
likewise employed with this case in definitions of time ; as, viib rov^ 
avTOog ^poyoi'f, '* about the same time.^^ 



228 PREPOSITIONS. 

8. Sometimes it is found with the accusative, in answer to the ques- 
tion " where V as, ovte vtteoti OLKy/iara inrb yfjv, " nor are there any 
chambers under ground,^'' {Herod. 2, 127) ; el rivag dyaivro rtbv vf mv- 
Tovg, " in case they thought highly of any of those under therrC^ {Xen. 
Cyrop. 3, 3, 6). Hence, vtt' avyag opdv rt, " to examine anything by 
the light j^^ i. e., under the Ught; with the hght streaming down upon it; 
VTTO Tty " in some measure,^^ &c. 

9. With names of places it expresses proximity, like the Latin sub, 
but refers to some elevated object. Hence, perhaps, the expression,. 
VTTO diKaGTTjpiov uyEiv Ttvd, " to lead a person to the tribunal of judges ^^ 
the judges sitting on elevated seats. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Prepositions are often used as adverbs, without a case, especially 
kv in the Ionic and Attic poets. Thus, kv 6e 6y Kal AEcScovg slTtey 
" among others, then, he took the Lesbians*'' {Herod. 3, 39) -, kv 6' 6 
'rrvp(}>6poc "^Eog OK^ipa^ kT^avVEi, 2,oiiiog ExOiGTog, T:okiv, " while within 
the fiery god, in the shape of a most odious pestilence, having descended 
like a thunderbolt, ravages the city^ Among the Attic writers irpog 
especially is thus used, with the meaning of *' besides ;" as, ^EvkT^aEi, 
col dk rd6E Tikycdy Spdao te TTpoc, ^' Menelaus, I say these things unto 
thee, and besides I will do them'^ {Eurip, Orest. 615). 

2. Hence in Ionic writers they are often put twice, once without a 
case adverbially, and again with a case or in composition with a verb. 
Thus, dv (5' 06voEvc TToXvfirjTig dvcGraro, ^^up thereupon arose the sa- 
gacious Ulysses^^ {II. 23, 709) ; h 6e Kal kv MEfKpL, " in Memphis alsd'^ 
{Herod, 2, 176), &c. 

3. In composition with verbs the prepositions are always used adver- 
bially. Hence, in the older state of the language, in Homer and Herod* 
otus, it is customary to find the preposition and verb separated by other 
words, and the former coming sometimes immediately after the verb ; 
as, 7]iilv and 2,oiydv ufivvat {II. 1, 67) ; kvapt^ov an' EVTEa {It. 12, 195) ; 
and fjLEV GEuvTov cjlEoag {Herod. 3, 36), &c. Hence, when the verb 
is to be repeated several times, after the first time the preposition only 
is often used ; kno'kEl nokiv, dno Se naripa {Eurip. Here. F. 1056) ; 
Kara fiEV kKavoav Apvfzov noXtv, Kara dl Xapddpav {Herod. 8, 33), &Ci 

4. In the cases mentioned under ^ 3 there is properly no tmesis, 1. e.j 
the separation of a word used at that period of the language in its com- 
pounded form ; but the prepositions at that time served really as adverbs, 
which were put either immediately before or after the verbs. At a later 
period, however, particularly in Attic, the composition became more 
firmly established, and the prepositions were considered as a part of 
the verb. In Attic writers the proper tmesis is extremely rare. 



PREPOSITIONS. 229 

5. The prepositions are often separated from their case. Thus, h 
yap Ge ry vvktI ravrrf avacpeo/zai, {Herod. 6, 69) ; especially when a 
word is repeated in two different cases ; as, irap' ova kOcTKov kBelovori 
{Od. 5, 155), &c. 

6. Prepositions lil^ewise are often put after their case ; as, vecJv ano 
KoX K?iL(JLdG)v^ particularly in Ionic and Doric writers and the Attic poets. 
This takes place in the Attic prose writers only in Trepij with the geni- 
tive, of which the instances are frequent. 

7. When a preposition should stand twice with two different nouns, 
it is often put only once by the poets, and that, too, with the second 
noun ; as, y dlog 7} krrl yfiq {Od. 12, 27) ; t666[ia not cvv deKara yevea 
{Find. Pyth. 4, 16), &c. 



S Y N T A X.i 



THE ARTICLE. 

1. The article 6, 77 to, is properly a demonstrative pro- 
noun, and is used as such, in the elder language, by Ho- 
mer, and, in imitation of him, by the later epic poets ; as, 
6 yap paaiXrjL ^o?i.G)6elg, ''for this (deity) being incensed 
against the king ;" rd 6^ dnocva de^eaOe, ^' and receive this 
ransom,^^ 

2. But in later Greek, and especially among the prose 
writers, the article is generally employed to mark emphasis 
or distinction, and loses its demonstrative force f as, 6 ttoA- 
ejiog ovK avev tavSvvojv, rj 6s slprjvrj dfCLvdvvog^ '' war is 
not free from dangers^ hut peace is without danger'''^ (here the 
article is put on account of the opposition of war and 

1 . The greater part of the rules which are common to the Greek and 
Latin languages are here omitted. 

2. But the prose usage, it must be remembered, is derived from the 
original demonstrative force of the article. Thus, 7r6?iefj,og is strictly 
*' that state of things called war,^^ and 7f dpT/vrj, " that state of affairs 
termed peace. ^^ So 6 Kvpog is literally " that well-known Cyrus.^^ 



230 THE ARTICLE. 

peace) ; 6 Kvpog noXXd eOvr] KareaTpetparo, " the celebra' 
ted Cyrus subdued many nations^'' (here the article is em- 
phatic). 

3. When a proper name first occurs in prose, it is with- 
out the article (unless meant to be emphatic) ; but when it 
occurs the second time it generally has the article.^ This 
is called the usage of renewed mention. Thus, fiv 'EBVO(f)(t)V 

'AdTjvalog 6 iiEVTOL Zevocpcov dvaKotvovrat I>G)Kpd' 

TEL .... KOL 6 liCOKpdrrjg ovfidovXevec avrcj)^ '* there was 
Xenophon, an Athenian .... this Xenophon^ however^ con- 
fers with Socrates .... and he, Socrates, advises him.^^ 

4. But the article must always be omitted before a proper 
name when an additional substantive, with the article, is 
subjoined to the same for nearer definition ; as, Kvpog, b 
TG)v Hepuojv PaatXevg, " Cyrus, the king of the Persians ;'^ 
Orfdat, ai ev BoLG)TLa, " Thebes, the city in Bceotia,^^ 

5. Every expression which does not merely indicate an 
object generally, but represents it as existing in a particular 
state or in a peculiar relation, is accompanied in Greek by 
the definite article ; as, rbv yepovra aldelaSat XPV^ " one 
ought to reverence an old man ;" rojv rov (^tov dyadCdv ^er* 
i'XEiv del fcal rov 6ov?iOV, " even a slave ought to participate 
in the good things ofUfe.'^^ 

6. The article is used in prose with the demonstratives 
ovrog and Efcelvog, in which case the pronoun either pre- 
cedes the article or follows the substantive; as, ovrog 6 
dvTjp, or 6 dvrjp ovrog (not 6 ovrog dvrjp), " this same manP 

7. The article is also added to the possessive pronoun, 
for the purpose of giving a more precise definition. Thus, 
i\iog viog is merely a " son of mine ,*" but 6 k\iog viog is 
*' my son,'''' who is already known from the context. 

8. Adverbial expressions become adjectives by the ac- 

1. Unless the interval be so extensive a one that the mind does not 
readily recur to the individual as having been before mentioned. To 
this, however, there are several exceptions. 

2. Literally, " the one that is old;'' " the one that is a slave.^^ 



THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 231 

cession of the article ; as, ol TrdXat av6pG)7T0t, '^ the early 
race of men ;'^ 6 nera^i) xpovog^ *' the intervening time.'^^ 

9. The neuter of the article to is joined also to infini- 
tives, and forms in this way a species of verbal noun ; as, 
TO TTpdrretv, " the doing ;" to icaXcog Xsyetv, " the speaking 
well:''' 

10. The article is also combined with fiev and 6s, and 
then has in some degree the force of a pronoun ; as, ol 
fiev eg (jyvyrjv STpdnovTO, ol Se efietvav, " these, indeed, 
turned themselves to flight, hut those remained ;" Tovg {isv 
ETT'^vet, Toijg 6' enoXa^ev, " the former he praised, hut the 
latter he punished^^ 

THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 

1. A verb agrees with its nominative in number and per- 
son ; as, kyC) /Leyw, " / say ,•" tovtg) tg) dvdpe rjyTjadadTjv, 
" these two men thought ;" ol deol KoXd^ovac, " the gods 
punish:^ 

2. A neuter plural, however, is generally joined with a 
singular verb ;^ as, doTpa (paiveTai, " stars appear f' TavTcL 
toTiv dyadd, " these things are good^ 

, 3. But when the neuter plural refers to living persons, 
the verb is often put in the plural also, because persons are 
for the most part considered separately by the mind, but 
things as forming a class.^ Thus, rd teXt] vitegxovto, 

1 . When a substantive is omitted, they supply the place of substan- 
tives ; as, 7) avpiov, " the morrow ^^ supply 7]iiepa ; and again, ol lilrj- 
GLOVy ^^ neighbours:^ supply avOpoiroi. 

2. Sometimes the article is joined to an entire clause ; as, hav tovto 
fteSatoyg VTrdp^rj, tote koL nepl rod rlva TLfxupr/GSTat rig cKelvov rpoizov 
k^iarat gkottelv, " if this be firmly established, then will it be allowed us 
also to consider in what manner one shall punish thai monarch:^ 

3. So in the neuter, ra /xev — to. de, ^^ partly — partly:^ &c. 

4. This usage is more observed by the Attics than by the older wri- 
ters in the Ionic and Doric dialects, and is frequently neglected by the 
Attics themselves. 

5. Sometimes we find even a singular verb following a masculine or 
feminine plural ; as, vfivot riA/leTat, " hymiis arise:'' Find. 01. 11, 4; 
uXi^Tat bficpal fxi/.ecjv, " the voices of song resound:^ Id. fragm. In the 
Attic writers, however, this takes place only where the verb precedes, 



232 THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 

" the magistrates promised ,*" roadde fiev fxerd 'AOrjvaccjv 
edvTj eorpdrevov^ '' so many nations served along with the 
Athenians^ 

4. When the subject consists of several persons or things 
singly specified, and vi^iich. follow the verb, the latter often 
stands in the singular ; as, eoTt nal ev dXXaig ttoXeglv ap- 
Xovreg re fcal drjfxog, " there are in other cities also both ma- 
gistrates and a commons,'^'' Here, if dpx^'^'^^^ stood alone, 
the verb v^ould necessarily be eloi. 

5. Collective nouns, on the contrary, that is, nouns sin- 
gular which express multitude or number, have often their 
verb in the plural ;^ as, to crparonedov dvsxo)povv, " the 
army retired ;^^ rroXv yevog dvOpdjnojv ;^p65^'Ta^ tovtg), "a 
large class of men use this" 

6. A dual nominative is sometimes joined with a plural 
verb f as, rw de rax' ^77^^^^ ^XOov, " they two quickly 
drew near ,*" dficpG) Myovai, " both say." 

7. The nominative is often omitted when the verb itself 
expresses the customary action of the subject ; as, aaXm^et, 
" the trumpeter sounds his trumpet ^''^ where 6 GaXnifCTrjg is 
implied ; sfcrjpv^e, " the herald made proclamation" where 
6 fCTjpv^ is implied. 

8. When two or more substantives are connected by a 
conjunction, the verb which belongs to all, instead of being 
in the plural, is sometimes found to agree with one of these 
substantives, and usually with that one which is nearest to 
it, and the most important in the sentence ; as. Got yap e6- 

in which case probably the author had the whole in his mind, and ex- 
plained or defined it afterward by the substantive in the plural. Thus, 
dedoKTat (pvyai, " exiles are decreed,'''' Eurip. Bacch. 1340. 

1. This construction occurs even in the genitive absolute; as, tov 
GToXov ttXeovtljv, Demosth. in Mid. 45. 

2. Sometimes, on the other hand, the dual of the verb is put with the 
plural nominative, even when more than two persons are signified. This 
occurs chiefly in the earlier epic poets, and is not found in the tragedians 
and prose writers. Many scholars consider the passages in question 
corrupt, or think that they must be explained otherwise. The whole 
diflficulty is removed, however, by regarding the dual as originally an 
old form of the plural, limited subsequently to the expression of two. 



THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 233 

(jdtiB VLtcrjv Zevg 'Kpovidrig kol 'AttoAAcjv, "/br unto thee has 
Jove^ the son of Saturn, given victory, and Apollo.''^ 

9. Sometimes a nominative is put without a verb follow- 
ing, and is then called the nominative absolute ; as, efcelvoc 
6e eiasWovreg, elnev 6 Kptrcag, " they having entered^ Crit- 
ias said.'''' 

THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 

1. An adjective is often put in the neuter gender, with- 
out regard to the gender of the substantive which stands 
with it in the sentence, XPW^ being understood, and re- 
mains in the singular even when the substantive is in the 
plural ;^ as, ovk dyaOov rj iroXvKOipavia, " the government 
of the many is not a good thing ;" fieradoXat slat Xvirripov, 
** changes are a sad thing ^ 

2. An adjective of the masculine gender is often found 
with a feminine noun of the dual number, and under this 
rule are also included the pronoun, participle, and article f 
as, djLi06j rovTG) rC) rroXse, " both these cities ;" 6vo yvvalfce 
epL^ovre, *' two women quarrelling ;" tcj ^fi^pe, " the two 
handsy 

3. An adjective is often put in a different gender from 
the substantive with which it stands, as referring to the 
person or persons implied by that substantive -^ as, (j)lXe 
rifcvov, " dear child'' {II. 22, 84), spoken of Hector ; re/cog 
drpvrojvrj, " indefatigable offspring'' {II. 2, 157), spoken of 
Minerva. 

4. Hence a collective noun in the singular number, and 
of the feminine or neuter gender, is often accompanied by 
the adjective in the plural and masculine; as, exofjiev rrjv 

1. In all such constructions as these, the substantive is regarded by 
the mind as representing merely some general class of things, and hence 
the adjective is put in the neuter gender. 

2. Hence it has been inferred that the dual of the adjective, pronoun, 
participle, and article had originally only one form, namely, the mascu- 
line. 

3. Grammarians call this synesis {ovveaiQ), i. e., an understanding of 
the person implied by the substantive. 

U2 



234 PRONOUNS. 

aXXrjv vnrjpeGiav rtXeiovg aal dfiscvovg, ^* we have the rest 
of the crews more numerous and skilful. ^^ 

5. Among the tragic writers, when a woman speaks of 
herself in the pkiral number, she uses the masculine ; and 
the masculine is also employed when a chorus of women are 
speaking of themselves. Thus, ol rrpoOvrjOKovreg {Eurip\ 
where Alcestis speaks of herself ; Gy/crecp* dfcovaag (^Eurip. 
Androm,), " / pitied, on having heard,''^ where the chorus 
speak. 

6. A substantive is often used as an adjective ;^ as, yAwcr- 
aav 'EXXdda edlda^e, " he taught the Greek tongue.^^ 

7. The substantive is often changed into a genitive plu- 
ral f as, ol xp^f^'ol rG)v dvdpcjTTCJV, " the worthy ones among 
men,^^ for ol XPV^^^^ avdpojnoc, " worths/ men.^^ 

8. This construction takes place also in the singular, es- 
pecially in Attic ; as, r^v irXeiaTTjV rrig orpariag {Thucyd,)^ 
" the greatest part of the army ;" rbv rcoXvv rov xP^voVy 
*' a great part of the timeJ*^ 

9. An adjective in the neuter gender, without a substan- 
tive, governs the genitive ; as, fieaov rjfispag, " the middle 
of the day ;"* rooov ofiiXov, " so great a throng^ 

10. Adjectives are very often put in the neuter singular 
and plural, with and without an article, for adverbs ; as, 
TTpcoTOV, " in the first place i^ to npojrov, ^' at first ;^^ KpV" 
cpala, ^' secretly ;^^ ^acdpd,^^' cheerfully ^ 

PRONOUNS. 

1. The noun to which the relative refers is often omitted 
in the antecedent proposition, and joined to the relative in 
the same case with it ; as, ovrog eartv, bv eldeg avdpa, 
" this is the man whom you saw ,*" ovk €%w, G)rtvt mGrevaac 
av dvvatiiTjv ^iXix>, " / have no friend on whom I might relyP 

1. This is of very ordinary occurrence in our own language ; as, sea^ 
water, house-dog, &c. 

2. The substantive is here considered as a whole, and the adjective as 
a part. 



PRONOUNS. 235 

2. The relative often agrees with its antecedent in case, 
by what is called attraction ; as, avv rolg 'drjaavpolg, olg 
6 TTarrjp fcareXtnev, " vjith the treasures which his father left 
behind;'*'^ dycov and rcov ttoXscjv, g)V eiTeias, Grparidv, 
" leading a hodrj of troops from the cities which he had per- 
suaded.''^ 

3. If, in this attraction, the word to which the relative 
refers be a demonstrative pronoun, this pronoun is generally 
omitted, and the relative takes its case ; as, avv olg /xdA- 
lara (btXelg, " with those whom you most love,^^ for avv rov- 
roig ovg iidXiora cptXelg. 

4. Sometimes the antecedent takes the case of the rela- 
tive ; as, dXXov ovu ol6a, ov av revx^a dijo), " / know not 
any other ivhose arms I may put on,^^ 

5. The nominative of the personal pronoun is usually 
omitted with the personal terminations of verbs, as in 
Latin, except where there is an emphasis ; as, dXXd ndv- 
TO)g real av oipec avrrjv^ " hut you, by all means, shall even 
see her." 

6. The possessive pronouns are only employed when an 
emphasis is required ; in all other cases the personal pro- 
nouns are used in their stead ; as, rrar^p rjfiojv, " our fa- 
ther" (literally, <* the father of us") ; but TTarrjp rjfierspog, 
" our own father." 

7. A substantive is sometimes put in the genitive, as in 
apposition with another genitive implied in a possessive 
pronoun ;^ as, eKKoipeie Kopa^ rov ye abv d(p6aXii6v rov 
irpeadecjg, " may a raven strike out the eye of you the ambas- 
sador." 

8. The possessive pronoun is sometimes used objec- 
tively ;^ as, abg TToOog, not " thy regret" but " regret for 

1. So in Latin, mea ipsius causa, where ipsius is in apposition with 
the genitive implied in mea. So, also, nomen meum absentis, meas prcB- 
sentis preces'^ {Cic. Plane. 10, 26). 

2. This is called by the older grammarians the passive use of the pos- 
sessive. Consult Ruddimarij Instit. G. L. ed. Stallb. vol. ii., p. 50. 



23G THE GENITIVE. 

thee ;'' raiid vovderrjixara, " the lessons which thou gitest 
meP 

9. The pronoun avrot; is often used after ordinal num* 
bers, to show that one person with several others, whose 
number is less by one than the number mentioned, has done 
something ; as, Kopcvdtcjv orparrjydg rjv Zevo/cXetdTjgf 
TTeixTTTog avTog, " Xenoclides was leader of the Corinthians 
along with four other s,^^ 

10. The demonstrative pronouns ovrog and o6s are gen- 
erally distinguished in this way, that ovrog refers to what 
immediately precedes, and ode to what immediately fol- 
lows. Thus, TTEfJi'iljaaa- rj Tofivpcg KrjpvKa eXeys rdSe, 
*' Tomyris, having sent a herald, announced as follows ,"" 
ravra de d/covaag elrre, " having heard these things, he 
said,^^ 

1 1 . The demonstrative pronouns are often used instead 
of the adverbs " Aere" and '' there ;" as, dXX* ^(5* onadiov 
EK dofjicjv epx^rat^ " hut here comes a maidservant out of the 
mansion ;" avrai ydp, avrat TTXrjaLov '&p(j)GK0Voi [lov, ^^for 
there, there, they are leaping near me." 

12. The reflexive pronoun kavrov is sometimes used for 
the other reflexive pronouns of the first and second per- 
sons ;^ as, 6d rjfJLdg dvepeadat eavrovg, " it behooves us to 
ask our own selves ;" el 6' errjrviiojg fiopov rbv avTrjg olada, 
'* but if you truly know your own fateP 

THE GENITIVE.2 

1. The verbs Ei\hi and yiyvo\iai^ denoting possession, 
property, part, or duty, require the genitive ; as, tovto rh 
Trediov fjV fiev ttots rcov Xopadfitoyv, " this same plain be- 
longed formerly to the Chorasmians ;" TToXXrjg dvotag earl 

1. Some accompanying gesture must be supposed, that may serve to 
express the reference of the pronoun. 

2. The fundamental idea of the genitive is that of separation or ah* 
str action, of going forth, from, or out of anything. 



THE GENITIVE. 237 

'&7jpda6ac Ksvd, " it is the part of great folly to hunt after 
vain thifigs.^^ 

2. The genitive is used with verbs of all kinds, even 
with those which govern an accusative, when the action 
does not refer to the whole object, but only to a part -, as, 
dnrrjGaL fcpeG)v, " to roast some flesh ;" ersfjiov rrjg yrjg, 
*' they laid waste a part of the country f^ rrapOL^ag rrjg -^v- 
pag, " having opened the door a little ^ 

3. On the general principle of reference to a part, the 
genitive is put with verbs that denote " to take hold of^^ " to 
touch,^^ and also with their opposites, " to let go^'' " to loose^'' 
&c. ; as, IXd^ovTO rrjg ^(ovrjg, " they took hold of his gir- 
dle ;" el rig vficov de^cdg PovXsrat rrjg efirjg aij)aadat, " if 
any one of you wishes to touch my right hand f rrjad^ etcov- 
aa iraidbg ov iiedriaoiiai, " / will not willingly let go of this 
my childy 

4. On the same principle of a part, the genitive is put 
with the verbs fitiivrjafceLV, " to remind ;" fiefivrjaOat, " to 
remember ;" AavOdveaOat, " to forget,'^^ because remember- 
ing and forgetting refer always to particular properties and 
circumstances only, and therefore to parts of the whole. 
Thus, (plXojv fcal Trapovrcjv nal dnovrcjv fiSjjivrjCFo, " re- 
member friends both when present and absent ,*" ovde rors 
e7Tt?.rj(70[iaL avrov, " even then I will not forget him.^^ 

5. The genitive is also put with the verbs " to begin,^^ 
such as apx^^v, apxeoOai, vnapxetv, Sic, because here 
also the reference is only to a part, that is, the commence- 
ment of an action ; as, apx^rs dSctccag, '' begin injustice ;" 
uTTrjp^av rrjg eXevBepiag dTrdcfd ry 'EAAdd^, " they made a 
beginning of freedom for all Greece,''^ 

G. Verbs signifying the operations of the senses, such as 
" to hear,'^ *' to feel ^"^ " to smell^^ and the like, but not those 
denoting " to see^'' require the genitive ;^ verbs signifying 

1. The genitive is put with these verbs only of the object which pro- 
duces the thing perceived, or of an occurrence of which we perceive only 



238 THE GENITIVE. 

" to sepy take the accusative. Thus, navrog fiaaiXeig 
aKOvet, " a king hears everything ;" b^o) fxypoVy " / smell of 
myrrhy 

7. Adverbs of place and time require the genitive, be- 
cause the adverb denotes a single point only, but the sub- 
joined definition of place and time designates the vi^hole ; 
as, Travraxov yrjg, " everywhere on earth ;" dijje rrjg Tjiiepag, 
" late in the day^ 

8. Time when^ that is, part of time, is put in the genitive ; 
as, '&epovg re nal x^^l^^'^og, " in both summer and winter. ^^ 

9. The material of vi^hich anything is made is put in the 
genitive, the thing made being a single object, but the sub- 
joined definition denoting an entire class or kind of materi- 
als, part of which go to compose that object ; as, rbv di^- 
pov eTTOLTjaev laxvpojv ^vXg)v, '^ he made the chariot of strong 
wood.'''' 

10. The superlative degree is also followed by a geni- 
tive, this genitive marking the entire class, of which the 
superlative indicates the most prominent as a part or parts ; 
as, ExOiOTog Trdvrcjv, " most hated of all;^^ apiaroc Tpcjojv, 
bravest of the Trojans. ^^ 

11. Hence the genitive is put also with verbs, adjectives, 
and adverbs, which are either derived from superlatives, or 
in which merely the idea of preferableness is implied ; as, 
EfcaXXtarevsTO naaojv yvvacicojv, " she was the handsomest 

single parts. The thing perceived, on the contrary, stands in the accu- 
sative. Hence, for the various construction of these verbs, the following 
rules obtain : 1. If the person alone is named, this stands in the genitive. 
2. If both person and thing are named, the person stands in the genitive 
and the thing in the accusative ; as, tovto ^i^Kparovg TjKOVoa. 3. If 
the thing alone is named, the question then is, whether this is conceived 
as a simple part which I comprehend with my senses, or as a compound 
whole of which single parts only are perceived ; in the first case the ac- 
cusative stands, in the second the genitive ; as, wr yodero ra ytyvofieva, 
♦' when he perceived lohat was taking placed On the contrary, always 
aladdveadac Kpavyf/g, d-opv&ov, &c., because one can only perceive indi- 
cations of the noise. In like manner, anovetv dtiirjq, " to hear a suit ;^^ 
aladdveaBat encSovTiT/Ci *' to perceive a plot ;" but ^vvievac to, Ae/o/zeva, 
'' to comprehend or understand what is said.^^ 



THE GENITIVE. 239 

of all women ;" diaTTpenelg '&V7]rojv, " conspicuous among 
mortals ;" ef6;\;a)^ Trdvrcjdv. ''in a manner surpassing alL^^ 

12. To words of all kinds other words are added in the 
genitive, which show the respect in which the sense of 
these words must be taken ; and, in this case, the geni- 
tive properly signifies " with regard to,''^ or '* in respect of;^^ 
as, v?i7]g TTcog 6 ronog e^et ; " how is the place with regard 
to timber T' ovyyvG)fiG)v tgjv dvOpconLVGyv afjLaprrnidTCJV, 
''forgiving with respect to human errors ;" rroppG) rrjg rjXtfc- 
lag, "far advanced in years'"' (properly, " far advanced with 
respect to years"). 

13. Hence all words expressing ideas of relation, which 
are not complete without the addition of another word as 
the object of that relation, take this object in the genitive : 
and to this rule belong in particular the adjectives " expe- 
rienced, ignorant, desirous," and the like, as also the verbs 
*' to concern one's self, to neglect, to consider, to reflect, 
to be desirous," &c. Thus, efiTTScpog fcafccjv, " experienced 
in evils ;" drraidsvrog dp£T7]g, " uninstructed in virtue ;"^ rov 
fcoivov dyaBov kfniieXelodai, " to take care of the common 
good;^^ fjieydX(i)v ercLdvfjislv, " to desire great things^ 

14. Words signifying plenty or want are followed by a 
genitive, because the term, which expresses of what any- 
thing is full or empty, indicates the respect in which the 
signification of the governing word is taken; as, iieorbg 
/cafCGJv, "full of evils;'''' sprjfJLog (ptXcjdv, "destitute of 
friends ;" rrXrjadrjvaL vodov, " to be full of sickness ;" 
deloBai olfcerojv, " to be in want of inhabitants.^'' 

15. The comparative degree is followed by a genitive, 
because this genitive indicates the respect in which the 
comparative is to be taken ; as, (.iet^ojv rrarpog, " greater 
than a father,''^ which properly means, "greater with respect 
to a father,^' 

1. Hence appears to have arisen the rule found in most grammars, 
that adjectives compounded with a privative govern the genitive. But 
a privative cannot well determine the use of either the genitive or any- 
other case. 



240 THE GENITIVE. 

16. All words derived from comparatives, or which in- 
volve a comparison, are followed by the genitive ; as, tJt- 
rdodai rcvog, " to he defeated by any one^^ (literally, " to be 
less than any one") ; varspalog t% f^d%?/^, " after the bat- 
tle ;" TcepLyeveadat rov f3a(JLX£(M)g, " to prove superior to the 
king ,*" devrepog ovdevog, " second to no one^'* 

17. All verbs that are equivalent in meaning to a noun 
and verb, and especially those in which the idea of ruling 
is implied, are followed by a genitive ; as, dvdaaetv tg)v 
M7/da)v, " to reign over the Medes^^ (equivalent to ava^ elvat^ 
TOJv Mrjdcjv) ; apx^tv dvdpojncjv, " to rule over merU'^ (equiv- 
alent to dpx(^v elvat dvdpcdnojv) ; and, in the same manner, 
/cvpcevetv for Kvpiog elvat ; rvpavvevetv for rvpavvog elvaiy 
&c. 

18. Words indicating value or worth require the genitive ^ 
as, epdec ttoAAwv d^ta, " he performs actions equivalent to 
those of many ;" larpbg iroXXcov dvrd^tog, " a physician^ • 
equal in value to many men!''' 

19. All verbs denoting "to buy," "to sell," ''to ex- 
change," &c., are followed by a genitive ; as, (hvovvrac 
rag yvvdlKag XPW^^^'^ ttoXXgjv, " they purchase their wives 
for much money ;" sttgjXovv ttoXXov rolg dXXoig, " they sold 
for a large sum to the rest.'''' 

20. All verbs denoting " to accuse," *' to criminate," &;c., 
are followed by a genitive ;^ as, ypd(f)Oiiai as cpdvov, '' I ac- 
cuse you of murder ;" dicj^ofiai as dstXtag, " / will prosecute 
you for cowardice.^^ 

21. The genitive often stands alone in exclamations, 
with and without an interjection, as indicating the cause 
from which the feeling in question originates; as, ^Q Zev 
PaaiXsv rrjg Xsnrdrrjrog rCdv (ppsvCjv \ '' Oh supreme Jove^ 
the acuteness of his intellect /" "AttoAAov, rov x^^P'W^'^^^ • 
" Apollo^ what a pair of jaws /" 

1. The genitive here denotes the object of the action. For this same 
reason tvEKa and vnip govern the genitive. 



DATIVE. 241 

DATIVE.i 

1. The dative stands in answer to the questions to whom 
or what? for whom or vohatl to whose advantage? to whose 
disadvantage ? as, edoofcd aoi rb j3c6Xcov, " / gave the book 
to thee ;" eneade fiot, w Traldeg^ ''follow me, my children ;" 
emrdrrG) aot tovto, '' / enjoin this upon you ;" i^eo^'^ dpea- 
K£C, '' he pleases the gods ,*" (fyiXog efcstVG), " a friend to him ;" 
dyadov rxj no^ec, " good for the state. ''^ 

2. Words which express the idea of approach^ meetings 
union, or connexion, as well as all verbs implying an action 
which cannot be accomplished without approach to the ob- 
ject, as, to associate, to speak, to converse, to pray, to dis- 
pute, to contend, to^ vie, to he attentive, and the like, are 
joined with the dative ; as, opw 7}iuv (Sapddpovg TTpoGLov- 
rag, " I see barbarians approaching us ;^^ fJiTj epc^e rolg yov- 
evatv, " contend not with your parents ;" svxovrac rcdcL 
•&£olg, " they pray to all the gods^ 

3. Verbs to rebuke, to blame ^ to reproach, to envy, to be 
angry, take the dative of the person ; as, enol XoLdoprjGsrat, 
'' he will reprove me;^^ [isficpofjial rolg dpx^tv (SovXoixevoig, 
" / blame those who wish to rule ;" ov ^Bovelre. rovrcp, " envy 
not this man ,'" rC %a/l67ratV£if tc5 'dspdnovrt ; " why art 
thou angry at the attendant ?" 

4. Words implying equality, resemblance, suitableness, 
or the contrary, have the dative case ; as, laog rolg ioxv- 
polg, " equal to the powerful ;^^ eotfcag 6ov?iG), " you resemble 
a slave ;" dvofioiog T(b Trarpt, " unlike his father, ^^ 

5. In like manner, the dative stands also with 6 avrog, 
because it expresses perfect equality ; as, ev rco avrcD 
Ktvdvvco Tolg (pavXoTdroLg, " in the same danger with the 
worst ,-" rolg avrolg Kvpo) birXoig, " in the same arms with 
Cyrusr 

1. The dative serves to designate the more remote object, that is, it 
designates the object which merely participates in an operation, without 
being immediately affected by it, or in which the effect or consequence of 
an action is shown. 

X 



242 DATIVE. 

6. The means by which, and the instrument with whichj 
a thing is accomplished, are both put in the dative, since 
this case also serves in Greek to indicate all definitions 
that are mentioned incidentally and secondarily to the main 
object ;^ as, rolv ocpBaXixolv opoJiisv, " we see with the two 
eyes ;" oi noXefztot edaXXov XiOotg, Kal ercatov ^axdipat^i 
" the enemy threw with stones and struck with swords.''^ 

7. The motive and cause are put in the dative, and hence 
the verbs " to rejoice^'^ *' to be delighted," " to be grieved,^^ 
&c., govern the object by which the feeling is occasioned 
in the dative ; as, </)666l) dnrjXOov, '' they departed through 
fear ,•" aol ;\;a^pov(7iv, " they delight in thee ;" XynovfieOa 
TovTOig, " we are grieved by these thiiigs," 

8. The manner and way in which a thing takes place are 
put in the dative ; as, jSta elg ttjv olniav eiaxjXOov, " they 
entered into the house by force ;" rrdvra dcereraiCTO fierpo) 
nal TOTTCi), " all things were arranged by measure and by 
place." 

9. The period of time at which a thing takes place, or 
during which a thing continues or exists, is put in the da- 
tive ; as, T'^de rxj vvktc, " on this very night ;" rplg evticrj' 
aav ravrxi rxj rjiJiepay " they conquered thrice during this 
same day" 

10. The verb elfjLL, when put for £%(*), " to have" governs 
the dative ; as, oaotg ovk ^v apyvpog, " as many as had not 
money" 

1 1 . An impersonal verb governs the dative ; as, e^eori 
fWL dirievai, " it is lawful for me to depart." 

12. Neuter adjectives in reov govern the person in the 
dative, and the thing in the case of the verb from which 
they are derived ; as, rovro TTOtrjTeov earl fioi, " / must do 
this ;" rovTOv emfxeXTjreov eorlv vfilv, " you must take care 
of this." 

1. Hence the verb xp^^^'^h *' ^o use,'''' ^^ to make use of,'''' takes the 
dative. 



ACCUSATIVE. 243 

ACCUSATIVE. 

1. A verb signifying actively governs the accusative ; as, 
ol "FtX^Tjveg evLKTjGav rovg Uipaag, " the Greeks conquered 
the PersiansJ^ 

2. Other verbs also, which in Latin frequently take the 
object in the dative, or are connected with it by a preposi- 
tion, require in Greek the accusative ; such as verbs signi- 
fying " to benefit,''^ " to injure^^^ and, in general, all which de- 
note an action tending to the advantage or disadvantage of 
a person ;^ as, (bcpeXrjcJs rovg ovvovrag, " he benefited those 
who associated with him ;" 6 KoXanevcdv rovg (l)cXovg pXan- 
ret, " he that flatters injures his friends ;" rijjiOjpovvraL rovg 
ddifcovg, ^' they punish the unjust.'^'* 

3. The accusative also occurs in Greek with intransitive 
verbs, when the object which receives the action contained 
in the verb is definitely assigned, as in verbs signifying *' to 
go,''^ " to come" " to reach," " to arrive at^^ Slc. Thus, rijv 
vrjGov dcpLicero, " he came to the island ;" TTOpeveaOat odov, 
*' to go upon a journey ." 

4. Every verb may take an accusative of a cognate noun ; 
as, tavdwevaoj rovrov iclvSvvov, " / will encounter this dan- 
ger ;" rjadevrjaav ravrr]V daOeveiav, " they were sick with 
this sickness ;" entfie^ovrat rrdaav £7n[ieXeLav, " they exer- 
cise all care ;" TToXefiov iroXefjirjooiJiev, " we will wage war" 

5. Many verbs, the action of which admits of more than 
one object, without determining the nearest, have in Greek 
a double accusative, namely, the accusative of the person 
and the accusative of the thing. To these belong verbs 
signifying '^ to do good or evil to one" " to speak good or evil 
of one" '' to ask" '* to demand" " to teach" " to put on or 
off" " to take away" " to deprive" '* to conceal" &c. ; as, 

1. The verb ?.vGtTe?.etVf " to be of use to^''"' always takes the dative ; 
on the contrary, the occurrence of ioc^teTielv with the dative is rare, and 
confined to the poets ; as, Sojph. Antig. 558, dore Toig -O-avovaLv co(j>s^ 



244 ACCUSATIVE. 

KaKa noXXd eopye TpcJag, " he has done many evils to the 
Trojans;'^ ay ad a elnsv avrovg, "Ae said good things of 
them ;^^ elpero anavrag rov TralSa, "Ae asked all about his 
son ;" Tovg iiaOrjrdg edcSa^e acjcppoavvTjVy " he taught his 
disciples continence,^^ 

6. Verbs governing two accusatives in the active retain 
one in the passive, namely, the accusative of the thing ; as, 
OfcrjTTTpov rt[xdg re dnoovXdrat, " he is despoiled of his scep- 
tre and honours ;" srcaidsvO?] fiovcFLiirjv Kal prjropLicrjV, " he 
was taught music and rhetoric.'^'' 

7. When, in addition to the whole object, which receives 
the action of the verb, particular specification is also made 
of a part, in which this action is principally shown, both 
the whole and part stand, especially with the poets, as 
proximate objects in the accusative ; as, fiiv lovra ftdXe 
(JT7]6og, " he wounded him^ as he came on^ in the breast ;" rpo- 
fiog vnrjXds yvia eKaarov, " trembling came upon each one 
in his limbs beneath.'" 

8. Since the accusative serves always to designate the 
object upon which an action immediately passes, it fre- 
quently stands also with intransitive verbs and adjectives 
containing a general expression, and indicates the part or 
more definite object to which this expression must be prin- 
cipally referred. This is called the accusative of nearer 
definition, and is to be expressed in English by dififerent 
prepositions, especially by in, as to, with respect to} Thus, 
rbv ddnTvXov dXyCd tovtov, " I feel a pain in this finger ;' 
Txodag (Jjfcvg 'AxtXXevg, ^^ Achilles swift as to his feet f^ Sv- 
poq Xfv TTjv rrarpiSa, " he was a Syrian as to his native 
country ;" to devSpov TrevrrjicovTa ttoSgjv eart to v\pog, 
" the tree is fifty feet in height^ 

9. Time how long is put in the accusative ; as, baov xpo-- 
vov dv TToXefjiog xfj ''for as long a time as there may be war;^^ 

1. It is generally assumed that Kardy or some other proposition, is un- 
derstood in such constructions, but this is not correct. 



VERBS PASSIVE. 245 

ttat %5£^ 6e Kol TpLTTjv rjfjiepav rb avrb tovto enparrov, 
** thet/ did this same thing during both yesterday and the day 
previous!'^ 

10. Distance and space are put in the accusative ; as, 
arcex^i ofcro) rifxepc^v 06 ov ino BadvXoJvog, " it is distant a 
journey of eight days from Bahylon^ 

VERBS PASSIVE. 

1. Verbs of a passive signification are followed in Greek 
by a genitive, governed by vito^ and, efc, rrapd, or npog ; 
as, 6 vovg virb otvov diacpOecperac, " the understanding is 
impaired by wine ;" aXXat yvCdiiat d(p* kudarcov eXeyovro^ 
" other opinions were expressed by each.^^ 

2. The dative, however, is sometimes employed by the 
poets instead of the genitive ; as, 'AxiXXijc edajxr], " he was 
subdued by Achilles. ^^ 

3. The dative is very frequently put with the perfect 
passive of verbs, whose perfect active is not much used ; 
as, ravra XeXsurai rjfuv, " these things have been said by 
«5," for XeXexa ravra. 

INFINITIVE. 

1. The infinitive mood is used to express the cause or 
end of an action ; as, i^eAo) aSetv, " / wish to sing.^^ 

2. The infinitive, with the neuter of the article prefixed, 
is used as a species of verbal noun ; and very frequently 
the article is thus appended to an entire clause, of which 
the infinitive forms a part; as, rb Xveiv, '^ the loosening ;^^ 
rb ex^iv XPW^'^^^ " ^^^ having money. ^^ 

3. The infinitive in Greek is governed by adjectives, 
and denotes the respect in which the idea of the adjective 
is to be applied ;' as, luavol repnetv (patvovrat^ " they ap- 
pear calculated to delight ,•" ov detvog eart Xeyeiv, aAA' ad- 

1 . This is imitated in Latin by the poets ; as, idoneus delectare^ utilis 
facere. In prose, however, the gerund with a preposition must be em- 
ployed ; as, idoneus ad delectandum, &c. 

X2 



246 INFINITIVE. 

vvarog otyav, " ke is not able in speaking, hut unable to keep 

silent J ^ 

4. The infinitive is used with coare, more rarely with w^, 
to express the consequence of an event indicated by the 
leading verb ; as, (piXortjiOTaTog fjv o Kvpog, (oare rravra 
VTTOfielvat rov snatvelodaL evena, " Cyrus was very ambi- 
tious, so as to endure all things for the sake of being praised. ^^ 

5. The infinitive is frequently used, in short intermediate 
propositions, sometimes with, sometimes without c5f, to in- 
dicate an aim, or else to qualify what precedes ; as, i)g 
87Tog elnelv, ''so to speak;'' airXCjg elTTslv, " to speak plain-t 
ly ,*" baov efis eldsvaL, " as far as I know ;" ifiot SoKelv, 

" as appears to me." 

6. The nominative, and not the accusative, is put with 
the infinitive whenever the reference is to the same per- 
son that forms the subject of the leading verb ;* as, l^acr- 
K£V elvai a^tog vlog, " he said he was the son of Jupiter ,•'* 
enetaa avrovg elvai i^eo^, *' I persuaded them that I was a 

godr 

7. The genitive and dative sometimes follow the infini- 
tive by a species of attraction ; as, eSsovro avrov elvat 
TTpoOvfiov, " they besought him to be zealous ;" dog fioi (f)aV'' 
7]vaL d^Lco, '' grant unto me to appear worthy. ''^ 

8. The infinitive elvat, with and without an article, is 
put absolutely with adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions, 
with their case ; as, eKO)v elvai, " willingly ;" to aviinav 
elvai, ''generally ;" rb fiev TTjfiepov elvai, " to-day at least ;^ 
TO Kara rovro elvai, " with respect to this,^^ 

9. The infinitive is frequently put for the imperative, 
particularly in the poets f as, 'dapacov vvv, AiofiTj^eg, em 
Tpcjeaai fidx^oSai, " taking courage, now, oh Diomede, fight 

1. The accusative, however, is joined with such infinitives whenever 
emphasis is required ; as, Kpolaog kvofit^e ecjvtov elvat TrdvTuv oMtcj' 
rarov, " Cr&sus thought that he himself was the happiest of all men^^ 
{Herod. 1, 34). 

2. Some understand, but without any necessity, an ellipsis of some 
verb, such as bpa or 66^, in such constructions. 



PARTICIPLE. 247 

against the Trojans;^ (jjaOKetv Mvtcrjvag dpdv, ^^ say that 
thou seest MycencB.^^ 

10. The infinitive of the present, future, and aorists, but 
more particularly of the future, when preceded by the verb 
fjLsXXG), expresses the future, and answers to the future par- 
ticiple active in Latin with the verb sum ; as, fieXXo) ypd- 
(pELV, " / am about to write^^ {scripturus sum) ; (jLe?u?^rjaG) 
ypd(f)etv, '* / will be about to write'^ {scripturus ero) ; efieX- 
Xrjoa ypdcbetv, '' I was about to write" (scripturus fui). 

PARTICIPLE. 

1. The participle is put after a verb, and in the nomina- 
tive case, when the reference is to some state as existing 
at the time on the part of the subject, or to some action as 
being performed by it.* Thus, olSa d^vrirog (x>v, " / hiow 
that I am a mortal f^ (pacverai 6 vSfiog Tjfidg jSAdrrrcjv, " the 
law appears to be injuring us ;" Txavoaade ddcKOvvreg, ** cease 
acting lorongfully" 

2. If, however, the subject belonging to the participle 
stands with the principal verb as a proximate object in the 
accusative, the participle also stands in the accusative ; as, 
ol 'Ad7]valoc enavaav avrbv aTparrjyovvra, " the Athenians 
caused him to cease being a commander ;^^ ovg av opco rd 
dyaOd TTOiovvrag, " whomsoever I may see doing the things 
that are good" 

3. If the subject belonging to the participle stands with 
the principal verb as the remote object in the genitive or 
dative, the participle, in like manner, takes the genitive or 
dative f as, xioOSfiTjv avrojv olofievcov slvat ao(l)(OTdTG)v, '* / 
perceived that they fancied themselves very wise " ovdenore 

1. This again is a species of attraction, and proceeds, as in other 
cases, from the circumstance of a dependant proposition having no sub- 
ject of its own. 

2. When a reflexive pronoun stands with the verb, the participle can 
be put in either of two cases, according as it is referred to the subject 
contained in the verb or pronoun ; as, Gvvocda hfiavru GO(j)bg c5v, ** / am 
conscious to myself of being wise ;" cavrcp ovvydetg adcKOvvrCy " you 
were conscious to yourself of acting wrongfully »'''' 



248 PARTICIPLE. 

fiETejjieXrjae [lOt aiyrjoavri, " / never repented of having been 
silent,'*^ 

4. The verb ^^ to he ashamed''^ takes the participle when 
the action of which one is ashamed is performed ; the in- 
finitive when the action is declined through shame ; as, 
aloxvvoiiat rrotrjaag, '* / am ashamed to have done it ,*" ala^ 
^vvoiiat epeadac, " / am ashamed to ask^ 

5. The verbs " to commence,''^ '' to hegin^^ take the parti- 
ciple when the assigned state has already begun to take 
place ; the infinitive when it is just about to take place ; as, 
q x^ifxcbv TJp^aro yevofjievog, " the winter was come on ;" d 
XSifJ'Cijv TJpxero ycyveaOac, " the winter was beginning to come 
on'^ (i. e., it approached, but was not yet arrived). 

6. The verbs " to hear^^ and " to learn'^ take the parti- 
ciple when a fact is adduced which we perceive with our 
own ears ; the infinitive when something is assigned which 
we hear from the narration of others ; as, TJicovaa rbv Ari- 
fioodevT] Xiyovra^ '' / heard Demosthenes speak ;" dfcovcj rbv 
Arjfjioadevr) Xeyecv, " / hear (i. e., I am told) that Demosthe- 
nes says.^' 

7. The verb ^aiveoBai takes the participle in the signi- 
fication ^' to he evident ^^"^ ^' to he manifest ;^ but the infinitive 
in the signification *' to seem^^ *' to have the appearance ;" 
as, e(paivero fcXatsiv, " he was just as though he wept ;" £^- 
aivsTO icXaiOJV, " he evidently wept.^^ 

8. Verbs signifying " to declare,''^ " to amiounce^ " to 
Sihow,''^ take the participle when something is announced or 
shown as a fact ; but the infinitive when it is assigned 
that something may or is said to be. Thus, dnrjyyeXXeTO 
JloTidata TToXiopfcovfjievrj, " Potidcea was announced to be in a 
State of siege^^ (when it is certain that it is besieged) ; arr- 
7\yy iXktro Uoridaca TToktopfceladai,, ** Potidma was reported 
to he in a state of siege*^ (when intelligence is given merely 
resting on report). 

9. To some verbs which merely express subordinate 



PARTICIPLE. 249 

definitions of an action, the Greeks add the participle of the 
verb which expresses the principal action. Such verbs 
are rvyxdvcj, Xavddvo), (pddvc*), diareXeG), &c., which, in 
translation, are sometimes rendered by adverbs.^ Thus, 
ervxov napovre^, " thei/ chanced to be present ,•" eXaOev ev- 
epyerojv, ^^ he conferred kindnesses secretly ;'^^ (pBdvei ttocgjv, 
" he does it before another ;" dtarereXeKa (pevy^v^ '< / have 
always avoided.^^ 

10. The participle in intermediate propositions is either 
explanatory, and is then expressed by the relative who, 
which ; or, 2. it denotes relations of time, and is expressed 
by the English particles when, while, after, &c. ; or, 3. it 
denotes relations of cause, like the particles because, since, 
as; or, 4. it expresses condition, like the particles if, al- 
though. Thus, ;\;aA£7r6v sort Xsyetv Tvpog yaorepa, oyra 
ovK sxovaav, " it is a difficult thing to speak to a stomach 
which has no ears ,*" dSvvarov noXXd rexvcjf^evov avOpcjnov 
ndvra fcaXcJg izoielv, " it is impossible for a man when try- 
ing many things to do all wellf^ dSifcel XoJKpdrTjg ov vofjiC" 
^G)v '&eoi)g elvac, " Socrates violates the laws, because he does 
not think that there are any gods ;" Ssvdpa fisv rfirjdevra 
ra^^oyg (pverat, " trees, although lopped of their branches, 
quickly grow again*^^ 

11. A participle and verb are to be translated as two 
verbs with the copulative conjunction ; as, ttjv olfctav npc- 
dfievog dTrrjXde, *' he bought the house and departed.'^ 

12. A participle, with a substantive, &;c., whose case 
depends on no other word, is put in the genitive absolute ;^ 

1. With a participle Tvyx^'^^ signifies forte ; Tiavddvcjy clam or impru- 
dens ; and (^ddvcj^ prcB. The primitive meaning of (pOdvo) is ^^ to get be- 
forehand,^^ ^^ to get the start o/." The verb rvyx^J-'^^ is often used in 
the manner indicated by the rule, when it is impossible to be expressed 
in translation. For the Greeks, in order to designate the absence of hu- 
man intention and will, very frequently join it with those verbs also which, 
without it, express a mere occurrence of nature or of chance ; as, ervx^ 
id-avcjv, " he was dead;'''' rvyxdvovav exovre^, " they have^ 

2. If a longer historical period is to be assigned by this genitive, the 
preposition e'itI is usually added ; as, knl Kvpov (3aGL?ievovTog, " under 
the reign of Cyrus,^^ i. e., as long as Cyrus reigned. 



250 PARTICIPLE. 

as, EHEivov eliTOVTog, navreg eaiyG)v, " he having spoken, all 
were silent.'*^ 

13. As the dative also is frequently used in Greek for 
definitions of time, and to assign the cause, datives absolute 
also occur, though much more rarely than the genitive ;^ 
as, TTEpuovrc rcj evcavrC), ^^ as the year came to a close ;^^ 
elpyofjievoLg avrolg rrjg '&aX,aGarjg, " they being cut off from 
the sea,^^ 

14. Accusatives ahsolute stand in Greek only in those 
eases where, in relating another's actions, the narrator as- 
signs by conjecture the motive which influenced the agent. 
The participle is then accompanied by the particles (bg, 
are, cjanep, or (hg av, and the use of the accusative must 
be explained elliptically, as dependant upon a verb " to 
siippose,^^ " to believe,^'* " to imagine,''^ which is indicated in 
the particles o)g, &c. ; as, rjvx^'^^ npog rovg '^eovg dnXiog 
rdyaOd didovai, (hg rovg '&80vg KaXXiara eldorag, dnola 
dyaOd eartv, " he prayed the gods simply to give him the 
things that were good, since (in his belief) the gods know 
best what things are good.^^ 

15. If in an intermediate proposition one of the relations, 
which are otherwise designated by genitives absolute, is to 
be expressed by the participle of an impersonal verb, this 
participle then stands in its absolute form, as a nominative 
absolute.^ Thus, did ri fievetg, e^bv dmsvat ; *' why do you 
remain, when it is allowed you to depart .'*" 6 6* eiibg nalg 
(SaXcjv, ovSev 6eov, KarabdXXeu rbv dpfcrov, " but my son, 
having thrown, what ought not to have been done, strikes down 
the boar.^^ 

1. Care must, however, be taken not to consider passages of ancient 
authors as proofs of this usage, where the dative can by any means be 
explained in a dependant sense. 

2. The nominative absolute is also used in impersonal phrases formed 
with earl and a neuter adjective, where a participial construction enters ; 
P-s, diKatov 6v, *' it being just ;" {idvvaTov av, " as it is ivipossiblc.^^ 



PROSODY. 251 



PROSODY.* 



i. Prosody (rrpoacpSLo), in its common acceptation at the 
present day, treats of the quantity of syllables, or the time 
occupied in pronouncing them. 

2. In the ancient grammarians, irpooixidia applies also to 
accent and breathings. 

3. The vowels e and o are short hy nature ; rj and co are 
long by nature ; and a, i, v, are termed doubtful. 

4. When a vowel is said to be short by nature, the mean- 
ing is, that it is short by its natural pronunciation, being 
equivalent merely to one short time. On the other handj 
a vowel long by nature is long by its natural pronunciation, 
being equal to two short times. Thus 7j is equivalent to es, 
and w to 00. 

5. Hence it follows, that the short vowel s has rj for its 
corresjponding long one ; and the short vowel o, in like 
manner, has o) for its long. But in the case of a, c, v, there 
is no distinct mark or letter by which the eye can tell at 
the instant whether these vowels are long or short, and 
hence they are called doubtful 

6. It must be carefully borne in mind, however, that, by- 
actual usage, every syllable in any particular case always 
has a definite quantity, either long or short ; and that, when 
we speak of doubtful syllables, we do not mean that they 
have anything doubtful in their nature, or wavering between 
long and short as regards the same word ; but only that they 
have no corresponding long or short marks by which the 
eye can detect their quantity at a glance. 

1. For a more enlarged view of this subject, consult the author's larger 
work on Greek Prosody. 



52 POSITION. 

7. The quantity of syllables is determined by various 
lethods : 



I. POSITION. 

1. A short or doubtful vowel before tv^ro consonants or a 
double letter is almost always long ; as, areAAo, ofi/xa, dv- 
rdyo), rpdne^a, dfid^a, 6lil)a. 

2. These two consonants may belong to the same word 
with the vowel ; as, eoTTspog, or one of them may belong 
to the same word, and the other to the succeeding word ; 
as, TG)v dfjLodev ys, '&sd '&vyarsp Atog, or both may be found 
at the beginning of the following word ; as, dvdpd '&V7jTdv 
lovra, 

3. In scanning the dramatic writers, the following excep- 
tions to this rule of position must be carefully noted. 

L A short voAvel before a soft mute (tt, «:, r), or an as- 
pirate (0, %, 6) followed by a liquid, is much rather 
left short than lengthened by the Attic poets. 

II. A short vowel before a middle mute (jS, y, 6), followed 
by p, is short in the comic writers, but in tragedy is 
mostly long. 

ni. A short vowel before a middle mute, followed by 
any liquid except p, is almost always long. In Eurip- 
ides such syllables are always long ; but in iEschylus, 
Sophocles, and Aristophanes, they are sometimes short. 

IV. The tragic writers occasionally leave a vowel short 
before the two liquids ^jlv, 

4. The epic writers, such as Homer, (fee, mostly avoid 
the shortening of syllables before a mute and liquid, and 
employ it chiefly when the word cannot in any other man- 
ner be adapted to the measure. Thus, in the case of such 
forms as TAdnvvOog, TAtXeta^ ^fcdfiavSpog, a/cenapvov, <fcc., a 
preceding short vowel in another word remains short, not- 
withstanding the double consonant Z and the two mutes crrc 
following immediately after. 



ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 253 

II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 

1. One vowel before another or before a diphthong is 
generally short, unless lengthened by poetic license or 
some other peculiar cause ; as, ayXaoq^ rjspcog, 

2. But the Greek poets, especially the epic, often lengthen 
vowels, even when another follows, by the aid of the arsis ; 
and this takes place not only in doubtful vowels, but also 
in those which are naturally short. 

3. By arsis, which is called by some ccBsura, is meant the 
stress of the voice that is brought to bear upon a particular 
syllable in each foot during the reciting of a line. In the 
dactyl it falls on the first syllable ; in the iambus on the 
last ; and in the trochee again on the first ; its place being 
regulated by the long syllable. 

4. The spondee leaves the place of the arsis undeter- 
mined ; and this becomes settled only by the nature of the 
verse in which the spondee is employed. Thus, in dactylic 
and trochaic measure, the arsis falls on the first syllable of 
the spondee ; but in iambic on the last. 

5. The following are instances of lengthening by arsis. 
Thus, d'ieg {Od, 9, 425) ; Kara Xcndprjv {II, 6, 64) ; de |W£- 
Xi^v (II 20, 322), &.C. 

6. In the epic writers, long vowels and diphthongs are 
mostly short at the end of words when the next word be- 
gins with a vowel ;^ as, rjfjtevrj ev pevOsaaLv {11, 1, 358); 
aii(pC) ofiGjg (lb. 23) ; dsxdat dnoLva (lb. 57). 

7. On the contrary, the long vowel retains its natural 



1. The principle on which this depends is easily explained. The 7f 
in ijfi^vr], for example, is equal to ee. and one of these epsilons being 
supposed to be elided before the initial vowel of the following word, the 
other epsilon remains, of course, short by nature. In other words, the 
final vowel of TjfLEVT) loses, as it were, a portion of its natural length by 
the sinking of the voice and by the vowel immediately following it. So 
the 0) in afKJxj is equivalent to two omicrons, one of which it loses be- 
fore the following vowel, while the other remains short. In like man- 
ner, the diphthong at in dexOai is supposed to lose a vowel. 

Y 



254 DIALECT. 

measure when it falls in the arsis of the foot. The follow- 
ing Homeric verse contains examples of both kinds, ^ 

'Hfier^pu hi olk(^, hv "Apyel, TrjTioQi Trdrprjc. {11. 1, 30.) 

III. CONTRACTION. 

1. All contracted syllables are long ; as, lp6<; for lep6q\ 
b(plg for b^teq, &c. 

2. Two vowels forming two syllables are frequently con- 
tracted into one in poetry ; as in XP'^^^^ (^^- !> 15), where 
ect) forms a single syllable. This is frequent in the dra- 
matic writers, where the syllables are in different words, 
and is called synizesis ; as, p) eldsvat (HippoL 1331), where 
the 7] and ec are to be pronounced as one syllable ; 7] ev- 
yiveiav {Eurip, Electr, 1104). 

IV. DIALECT. 

1. The Doric a is long ; as, (f)diid, yvvd, AlveCd. And 
so is the a in the uncontr acted form ao of the genitive ; as, 
'ArpeiSdo. 

2. The iEolic a is short ; as, vvfi^d^ noiriTd, KOfjiTjTd. 

3. In the Ionic dialect a is generally short in the penult 
of the perfect tenses, such as yeyda ; and always short in 
the third person plural of the passive in drac and dro ; as, 
ear at ^ Sedfjbrjdro. 

4. The Ionic third person plural in aac is always long ; 
as, edat, nQedGi. 

5. The Ionic writers double the a and some other con- 
sonants at pleasure ; a license which the Attic poets never 

1. Here, after one of the vowels has been supposed to be elided, and 
a single short vowel remains, this latter, being in the arsis of the foot, 
receives the stress of the voice, and becomes long again. Thus, in the 
foot pcj tvX^ the syllable p6j is in the arsis, and hence, though one of the 
omicrons composing the omega is supposed to be cut off before the ini- 
tial vowel of kvl, and only a single omicron remains, that omicron is nev- 
ertheless lengthened by the stress of the voice falling upon it. On the 
other hand, in the foot ot/cw tv^ the omega is not in the arsis, and hence, 
after this vowel has lost one of its component omicrons before the next 
word, there is no stress of the voice upon the other omicron, and there- 
fore it remains short. 



COMPOSITION. 255 

used, either in tragedy or comedy. TliU3, in Homer, we 
have GT7]deGGLV for arrjOeatv ; OTTTTdrepog for dnorepog, &c. 

V. DERIVATION. 

1 . Derivatives for the most part follow the quantity of 
the words from which they are derived ; as, vlnaG) from 
vlfCT] ; rlfiaG) from rliirj. 

2. But many derivatives from verbs differ in quantity 
from the present tenses of these verbs, as being immediate- 
ly formed from the perfect passive, with a short penult. 
Thus, tipcTTjg and /cpLGig, though the verb be icplvG), because 
they are immediately formed from neKpirat, KSKpioai} 

VI. COMPOSITION. 

1 . Compound words generally follow the quantity of their 
primitives ; as, arliiog from rlfir] ; fivondpojv from [ivg, gen. 
fivog and rrdpoyv. 

2. The privative a is commonly short ; as, dspyog, deKO)v, 
d^vfiog, but dddvarog and dfcdfiarog are excepted, and, on 
account of the number of short syllables that follow, and 
which would make the words otherwise difficult to employ 
in verse, have the initial a always long. 

3. The particles 6a, ^a, apt, epc, and 6vg, are short ; as, 
6d(f>ocv6g, ^ddeog, dplSeiKerog, eplnvdrjg, dvaarjg. 

VII. INCREASE OF NOUNS. 

1. A in the increment of nouns is generally short; as, 
GGJfjia, drog ; Kpeag, drog ; vsfcrap, dpog ; fieXav, dvog, &c. 

Exceptions, 
1. All increments in avog are long except rdXdvog and 
[leXdvog ; as, Tcrdv, dvog ; Udv, dvog. 

1. In the same way, dcarpt^a, from ScerptSov, the second aorist of 

dtarpldcj ; and Trapaipvxv^ from Tzapeipvxov^ the second aorist of Tvapa-' 
^'PvXO). 



256 INCREASE OF NOUNS. 

2. All increments in avog, from nominatives in a^pure, are 
long ; as, oia^, dfcog ; pva^, dKog ; ^Xva^^ dtcog, &c. 

3. A is long in the dative plural of nouns, &c., that have 
a long penult in the genitive singular ; as, ytyag, av- 
Tog, dac ; rvipac, avrog, dac, &c. But those that are 
syncopated in the singular have the a short ; as, dv- 
dpdat, TTarpdaL, &c. 

2. I is short in the increment of neuter nouns ; as, fieXL, 
iTog; and in masculines and feminines which have the 
genitive in tog, cdog, or trog ; as, noXtgy log ; epig, tdog ; 
Xdptg, LTog. But d'ypig^ j3aX6cg, aapig, fcv7]fiLg^ acjypaylg, and 
several others, are excepted. 

3. I is long in the increment of masculine and feminine 
nouns vv^hich have two terminations in the nominative ; as, 
deX(f)Lg or 6eX(piv, Ivog ; durig or dtcrtv, Ivog, 

4. I is also long in the increment of monosyllables ; as, 
-^iv, '&lvog ; ig, Ivog ; Xlg, KiTog ; excepting, however, rig^ 
rivog ; and Alg, Atog. 

5. I is also long in nouns in tg, iBog ; iij), Inog ; t^, lyog ; 
and c^, iKog ; as, opvcg, lOog ; rerri^, lyog ; (jidarc^, lyog 
( ^* a lash^') ; (poivi^, licog. Homer, however, has QprjCKeg 
always short. 

6. But L is generally short in nouns in tipy l6og ; and i^y 
iXog ; as, xepvi^ip, l6og ; i^p^^, rpixog ; fidon^, Ixog, " a gum,'' 

7. T is short in the increment of monosyllables in vg^ 
vog ; as, 6pvg, dpvog ; fjivg, fivog, 

8. T is also short in the increment of neuters in v ; as, 
ddfcpv^ vog ; and in the increment of masculines and femi- 
nines in vg and vp ; as, vefcvg, vog ; iXvg, iXvog ; /%^i^^, 
IxOvog ; and also in the neuter noun irvp, nvpog. But da- 
6vg, v66g and fccdfivg, vOog, must be excepted. 

9. T is generally short in the increment of nouns in v^ 
and vip ; as, ovv^, vx^^ j XdAvi/j, v6og ; except dotdv^, 
VKog ; KOKKV^, vyog ; fcrjpv^, vKog ; K7]v^y vnog ; yvi/^, VTiog ; 
ypvip^ vnog ; while Bedpv^ has either vicog or vtcog. 



INCREASE OF VERBS. 257 

10. Nouns of two terminations, in vg and vv, have v long 
in the increment ; as, ^opfcvg, or ^opicvv, vvog, 

VIII. INCREASE OF VERBS. 

1. The quantity of the penult in the present and imper- 
fect remains the same through all the voices and moods ; as, 

KplVG), SKplvOV, fCplve, KplVOLjIL, KplvO), KplVELV, fCplvOJV, Kpl- 

vofiai, EKplvofiriv, fcplvov, Slc, 

2. Most tenses have the same quantity in the penult as 
those from which they are formed ; as, ervnov^ tvttoj, erv" 
nrjv, rvirrjaofiaif rervna, etervnetv, 

3. Verbs in d^w, c^o)^ and v^o), increase short in the fu- 
ture ; as, apTTa^o), dao) ; vofil^o), log) ; kXv^g)^ kXvgo). 

4. Verbs in do), where do) is preceded by a vowel, and 
all verbs in pdo), have the penult of the future long ; as, edco, 
sdao) ; opdo), dod) ; dpdo), dao). 

5. Verbs in do), when preceded by a consonant other 
than p, have the penult of the future short ; as, oirdo), dao) ; 
yeXdo), daoj. 

6. Liquid verbs, or those ending in Aw, fio)^ vo), /oo), 
shorten the penult of the future, but in the first aorist active 
they invariably take either a long vowel or a diphthong ; as, 
t^dA/Lo;, i9dAw, edrjXa ; reAAo), reAw, ereiXa ; (pacvo), (f)dvo), 
e(p7jva ; dapOvvo), dapOvvio, sSdpdvva, 

7. Verbs in lg), not proceeding from roots in ^w, increase 
long in the future ; as, kvXIg), Iog) ; fcovlo), lao). But eodiG) 
has the l everywhere short. 

8. Dissyllabic verbs in vo) are for the most part long in 
the future and aorists ; as, Svo, 6vgg), edvaa ; rpvG)^ rpvacj, 
erpvaa. Except tttvg), tttvog), eirrvoa ; nvo), fcvao), envoa ; 
and one or two others. 

9. Polysyllabic verbs in vg), on the other hand, are for 
the most part long in the penult of the future and aorist ; as, 
icT^vo), ioxvoG)^ laxvoa ; datcpvo), dafcpvao), edatcpvaa. 

Y2 



258 INCREASE OF VERBS. 

10. But polysyllables in vcj are for the most part short; 
as, dvvG), dvvGG) ; dpvG), dpvGOJ ; d(pvo), d(pvG(»). 

11. Verbs in vg), which have lengthened forms in Vfit, 
for the most part shorten the doubtful vowel ; as, deiKvvG)^ 
edeinvvov ; fxtyvvG)^ Efityvvov, The verbs (J)V(m) and 6v(o 
are not exceptions to this rule, since they do not furnish 
complete forms in vjit, but only in the second aorist. 

12. Polysyllables in vfii have the v everywhere short, 
except in the singular number of the present tense active, 
and the third person plural of the same tense and voice ; as, 
^evyvviii, ^evyvvGi ; but ^evyvvi^tev, ^svyvvre, ^evyvvvai, 
&c. 

13. On the other hand, dissyllables in VfiL have the v 
everywhere long ; as, dvdc, dvvat, edvre, &c. 

14. The penult of the second future and second aorist 
is always short ; as, ddfiG), Xadoj, Kpvdo), XtnCi) ; kddiioVj 
eXddov, eKpv6ov, eXiirov. With the single exception of the 
verb 71^7/(7(76), which, in the epic dialect, retains the long 
vowel in the penult ; as, snXTjyov, ercXrjyrjv. 

15. The third person plural in aac, and the feminine par- 
ticiple in aaa, are always long ; as, XeXocndat, Ke/cpvcpdai, 
iardoi ; TV^I^daa, ypdij^daa, &c. 

16. The augment, which, in verbs beginning with v or i, 
consists merely in lengthening this vowel, makes, of course, 
the initial syllable of the historical tenses long ; as, iKerevG), 
CKerevov, luerevaa. 

17. The doubtful vowel in the penult of the perfect ac- 
tive strictly follows the measure of the root in the present. 
Hence the middle syllable is short in most forms which 
have a in the present ; as, ypdcfxo^ yeypd(l>a ; but it fluctu- 
ates in those with i and v ; as, rpldo), rETpl(f)a^ but ptnrojy 
£ppL(f)a ; and again, kvittg), tceKV(j)a ; but KpvnrG)^ KeKpv(f)a, 

18. The perfect middle, with the exception of those which 
have a in the root, and change it into o (as Tpe(p(jj, erpd^oVj 
T£Tpo0a), has usually a long vowel in the penult ; as, ayo), 



DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 259 

"J break,^^ perfect middle edya. So avSdvo), ^dSa; Kpd- 
^6>, KEKpdya ; ptysG), eppiya ; rpi^cj, rerplya ; (pploGG), tts- 
(pplfca, &c. But iTe(()pd6a and some others are found short, 
and, in old forms, the first vowel was shortened by position 
after rejecting the intermediate consonant ; as, jSedda^ ye- 
yda, Sstdca, rrecpva. 

19. Perfects with what is called the Attic reduplication 
have usually, in polysyllabic verbs, a short vowel in the pe- 
nult ; as, d?ieL(pG), dXrjXicpa ; opvacG), opcopvx^^ ^^' Still, 
however, in Ionic poets, forms of this kind are occasionally 
lengthened; as, el?LrjXovda, vrrefjivrjf^vfce {IL 22, 491). 

20. When a is inserted in the third person plural of the 
perfect or pluperfect, or of the optative, it is always short ; 
as, dpG)p£xdTO, KSfcXidratf TTeiOoLdro, Slc. 

21. The reduplication before the root of verbs in [il is 
short ; as, rWrjiic, 6c6g)ixc. 

22. In verbs in {xl the a is always short ; as, lardrov, 
lardiiev, &c. Except in the third person plural in da^ 
and in the masculine and feminine participles ; as, tcfrdai, 
iardg, iardaa, 

IX. DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 
As a general rule, it may be laid down that a doubtful 
vowel in the penult of Greek words is generally short. 
Some particular exceptions, however, will here be noted.* 

I. Long a in the penult. 
1 . In drjp and compounds ; JlroXefJidtg^ AvKdG)v, Ma^awv, 
Uoaeiddojv, and the like ; Xdog and derivatives ; vdog, 
dt^, and compounds ; and in verbs in dcj, when do) is 
preceded by an e or the letter p; as, edo), irepdo), Spdo), 
with their compounds. Still, however, there are sev- 
eral exceptions ; as, KVfcdo), rtfjidG), ipvdpcdo)^ jxetScdo), 
atydG), accjndG), Sic, in which do) is not preceded by 
an s or the letter p. 

I. These exceptions are noted more fully in the larger Prosody. 



260 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 

2. In iKdvG) and compounds. So, also, in KtxdvG) and 
(j)6dvG) with Homer and the epic poets, but Kixcivo) 
and (j)OdvG) in the Attic tragic writers. 

3. In all derivatives from verbs in do) pure and pdod ; as, 
'Sedfia, 'Ssdatg, Sedrog ; opdfxa, opdacg, opdrog ; Idjjia, 
Idatg^ Idrpog, &c. 

4. In names of nations and proper names ; as, 'AcLdTTjg, 
j:,7TaprtdT7]g, TeyedrTjg. And also in the feminines 
formed from them ; s.s,'AaLdTtg,ML6£dTig. Add like- 
wise names of rivers, mountains, and islands ; as, Ev- 
(ppdTTjg, 'Ntcpdrrjg, AevKdrrjg, &c. But forms of this 
kind proceeding from short roots have the short vowel ; 
as, AaAjLiar?/^, TaXdrrjg^ &c. 

II. Long I in the penult, 

1. I in the penultimate is long in Homeric feminines, 
such as depylrj^ dSvfjilrj, dntOTlrj, &c., where the Attics 
have dpyta, dOvfuay dmGTia, &c. But dvla and Ka- 
Xla are long in both Homeric and Attic Greek, the 
Homeric form being dviri and fcaXtrj. Another term, 
itovca (Hom. kovltj), has the penult common in Ho- 
meric Greek, but in the singular more frequently long, 
in the plural always short. In the tragic writers it oc- 
curs thrice, and each time with the penult short. 

2. I is long in proper names in lg)v, which shorten the 
vowel in the genitive ; as, 'AfX(j)lG)v^ AoXiG)v, Jlavdlcjv^ 
gen. ILavdiovog. On the contrary, those remain short 
which take the long vowel in the genitive ; as, Bovko- 
XiG)v^ 'Herloyv, OlvomG)v, gen. OlvorrlGyvog. 

"3. Comparatives in lg)v have the t long in Attic, but short 

elsewhere ; as, yXvfclcjv, tcaKlcjv, Slc, 
4. I is long in the penult of verbs in lg), not proceeding 

from roots in ^g) ; as, (pdcG), XP^^^ rrplG), rcvXlo), &dc. 

But those which had originally a ^ in the root are 

short ; as, drld), fjiaarto), to which add eadcG) and dicj, 

though not from such roots. 



DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 261 

5. I is long in the penult of verbs in ivo) ; as, fcXlvo)^ fcpl- 
VG), nlvcjf oplvG), &c. Except tlvg) and (pdlvo), which 
are long in Homer, but short in Attic. 

6. I is long in nouns in trrj, trfjg, inq ; as, ' A^cppodlrr], 
* Kii(j)iTplTr], dcjfjLaTLTtg, TToXlrrjg, 6n?ilTrjg, &c. Ex- 
cept, however, fcpcrrjg, and other derivatives from the 
perfect passive with a short penult. 

III. Long V in the penult, 

1. T is common in the penult of verbs in vco. Some, 
however, occur more frequently with the long penult ; 
as, i(7;\;i)w, dafcpvo), ^vo), -dvG), Xvg) ; others, again, are 
found more commonly with the short penult ; as, fSpvo), 
dpvG)^ dprvG), SeLfcvvG), uXrjdvo), <fec. 

2. T is long in most verbals in viia, from verbs in vg) ; 
as, '&v(jia, nviia, Xviia, dprvfia, fji7]vvixa ; except, how- 
ever, epvfia, nXv[j,a, pv^jia, " a river, ''^ &c., which are 
invariably short. 

3. T is long in '&vfiog^ " animus, "^^ and its compounds, 
dOvfxog, paOvfxog, &;c. But -^viiog, " thymus, ^^ has the 
penult short. 

4. T is long in the plural cases of the pronoun gv ; as, 
vfjiSLg, vfxcov, vfilv, vfidg, 

5. T is long in verbs in vvg) ; as, evOvvoj, orpvvG), irXv- 
VG), &c., but not in the future ; as, evBvvg), drpvvGJ. 
When, however, they terminate in sg), the v is short ; 
as, 7tXvvsg)» 

6. T is long in all verbs in vpG) ; as, cjyvpG)^ avpG), KvpG), 
ddvpG), &;c. But, when they terminate in €G), the v is 
short ; as, KvpeG), fiaprvpsG), &c. 

7. T before a is almost always long; as, Atovvaog, 
XpvGog, ''A[j,(l)pvaog, KaiidvGrjg, &;c. Except verbals 
in vOLg ; as, XvGtg, dvvGcg, &lc, 

8. T is long in derivatives in vT7]p, vrrjg, and vrcg ; as, 
lirjvvrrjp, {j.rjvvTr}g, TrpsGdiJTrjg, 7rpeG6vTig. 



262 FINAL SYLLABLES. 

9. T is long in adjectives in vrog derived from long 
verbal roots in vg) ; as, dddfcpvrog, TToXvddicpvrog^ dr- 
pvTog, Slc, 

10. T is long in verbs in vx(»y ; as, Ppv^G), rpvx(*), and 
their compounds. 

11. T is long in the follow^ing words ; V'^/t^? V''^%or> 
€[xipvxog, tcaTaijJvx(*), &c. 

X. DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULTIMATE. 

The doubtful vowels before the penultimate are generally 
short. The exceptions to this rule are, however, many in 
number, and are best learned from a prosodial lexicon.* 

XL FINAL SYLLABLES. 

L Final a, av, ap, and ag, 

I. Final a is short ; as, rpdne^d, tvd, imTord, rerv^d. 

Exceptions, 

1. But a pure is long; as, 'Adrjvad, (jaXid, aiKvd; ex- 
cept verbals in rpta ; as, ipaXrpid ; and derivatives 
from adjectives in rjg ; as, dXriBEid ; and also lepeid, 
Kcodstd, (iaoiXeid (" « queen^^) ; but jSaacXetd (" a king- 
dom'^) and pacFiXecd (adj. fern. " royaV^) have the final 
vowel long. 

^. The Doric a for 7] is long ; as, ^a//a, Alveid ; and 
also the Doric genitive in a from nominatives in ag and 
rig\ as, ^Kvvibdg, d ; 'Arpeidrig^ a. 

3. Words in 6a and i^a have the a long ; as, PaaCXcvSd, 
Arjdd, l^tfiaiOd, except dfcavOd and TJXiOd. 

4. Words ending in pa, not preceded by a diphthong ; 
as, Kdpd, irrjpdy %apa, except ayrcvpd, 'ys(f)vpd, oXvpd, 
Kspfcvpd, and the perfect middle of verbs in pG) ; as, 
dtecpOopd, rreTTopd. 

5. Words ending in pa, with a consonant preceding ; as, 

1. They are given in full in the larger Prosody, 



FINAL SYLLABLES. 263 

aypd^ nerpd, aniurpd ; except Gcpodpd, OfcoXonevSpd, 
Tavdypd. 

6. All feminines adjectives from masculines in og ; as, 
dmaid ; except dld^ TTOTVtd^ Id, and fitd. 

7. Duals in a, as (.lovad ; and vocatives from nouns in 
ag ; as, Alvetd ; or poetical vocatives of the third de- 
clension ; as, Aaoddfjid, JloXvddfjid. 

8. The accusative in ea, from the genitive (third declen- 
sion) in £G)g ; as, ll7]Xed, from IlT/Aew^ ; jSaaiXed, from 
jSaatXecjg ; but, in Homeric Greek, IlTjXed, from Hrj- 
Xrjog ; (3aoiXrid, from PaacXrjog. 

9. Nouns in ela, from verbs in evo) ; as, 7Tpo(j)'r]Tecd, Sov- 
Xeid, 

II. Final av is short ; as, dv, TrdfinaVj Aldv, fieXdv, ttoct}^ 
odv, erv^pdv. 

Exceptions, 

1. Masculines in dv are long ; as, Tirdv, Tratdv. 

2. The neuter adjective ndv ; and hence the Attics ap- 
pear to have taken occasion to lengthen here and there 
the forms compounded with it ; as, drrdv, sntirdVj Trap- 
dirdv. But Trdinrdv and Trpondv are probably every- 
where decidedly short. 

3. Adverbs in av ; as, Xcdv, dydv, nepdv. On the con- 
trary, ordi^ and dnordv follow the quantity of the sim- 
ple dv. 

4. Accusatives of the first declension, from a long nom- 
inative ; as, (piXidv, from (ptXtd ; AivEtdv, from Alveidg, 
But the accusative in av from a short nominative is 
short ; as, TTorvidv, from norvid ; rpdne^dv^ from rpa- 

TTE^d. 

5. The Doric genitive plural of the first declension in 
dv, formed by contraction, is likewise always long ; 
as, fieXtdv, vvficpdv, for fisXcoJv, vviJ.(j)(ov, So, also, 



264 FINAL SYLLABLES. 

the Doric forms derived from those in tj, or produced 
by contraction ; as, 7T0L[idv, Hoaeiddv, 'AXicfjidv. 

III. Final ap is short ; as, bvdp, vetcrdp, [idfcdp. 

Exceptions, 

1. Monosyllables in ap are long ; as, tcdp, ipdp, 

2. The adverb yap is properly short ; but before ol and 
similar words it very often occurs long in epic lan- 
guage, through the force of the following breathing. 

IV. Final ag is long ; as, Alvecdg, ndg, Ifidg, ^tXidg, tv- 
il)dg, i]iidg. 

Exceptions, 

1. Words of the third declension, not forming the genitive 
in avTog ; as, [leXdg, fieydg, Xdfindg, (jeXdg, Kepag, &c. 
But rdXdg has the final syllable long. 

2. The accusative plural of nouns and participles of the 
third declension ; as, Ttrdvag, rvTrrovrdg, nocfievdg, 
^pevdg, &c. (but (SaatXedg, from (BaacXed), The accu- 
sative plural of the first declension, on the other hand, 
is always long. 

3. Adverbs in ag are short ; as, mXdg, arpsfxdg^ dyfcdg. 

4. A^ is short in the second person of the diflferent tenses 
which terminate therein ; as, erey^dg, rey^etdg, olddg, 
XeXotndg^ m^vKag. 

5. By a license of the Doric dialect, forms in ag, other- 
wise long, are occasionally shortened, and that, too, 
even in accusatives plural of the first declension ; as, 
lioipdg (Theocrit, 2, 160) ; avrdg {Id, 3^ 2) ; vvficpdg 
{Id. 4, 29). 

II. Final t, iv^ and ig. 
I. Final l is short ; as, IcpX, 'ore, fxeXl, tvtxtovgI, riBrnii^ 
&c. 



FINAL SYLLABLES. 265 

Exceptions. 

1. But the abridged form Kpl (for Kpidrj) is long, together 
with the names of letters in ^ ; as, ^l, ttT, &c. 

2. The paragogic i, added by the Attic comic poets and 
orators to certain pronouns and adverbs, is likewise 
long ; as, ovroal, vvvl, ovrojal, Sdc, So the similar t 
in the words 661, ravrl, Ssvpl, &c. 

3. Adverbs ending in*^, and formed from nouns, have the 
I either long or short, but more commonly short ; such 
as dfioxOi, dfiax^jrc, TravdrjfjiL, iravoiiiXi, dirovrjri, &c. 
But those which refer to nations have the t always 
short, as, ^fcvOcart, 'KpyoXtorl, BapdapLGrt, Slc. 

II. Final cv is short ; as, rvnrovaLV, eptv, ndXtv^ iroXtv^ 

npCV, VtV, G(pLV, 

Exceptions. 

1. Final tv, making Ivog in the genitive, is long ; as, pTjy' 
filv, Ifcrlv, 

2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; 
as, deXcplv (otherwise 6eX(f)l<;), dtcrlv, plv, Iv, Xlv. 

3. The datives plural rjfilv and vfiZv, though in several 
instances Sophocles makes rjp,cv and vfxlv, and the epic 
dialect has also dfifiiv, vfifjilv. 

III. Final ig is short ; as, dig, rpcg, noXlg, rvpavvcg, &Ca 
Exceptions. 

1. Monosyllabic nouns, and those which have two ter« 
minations for the nominative ; as, Zg, Xlg, pig, nig, dtX- 
(pig, dfcrlg, 

2. Dissyllables which make the penult of the genitive 
long ; as, dil)lg, j3aX6lg, nXrilg, fcvrjfjilg, fcpTjmg, bpvlg. Sic. 

3. Polysyllables with two short syllables before the last ; 
as, (Sarpaxlg, naXafilg, fcavovlg, irXonapIg pacpavlg, but 
not j3a(jtXcg, InerXg. 

4. Adjectives in tg, compounded from long forms, are like- 

Z 



266 FINAL SYLLABLES. 

wise long in the final syllable ; as, aXc/cprjirCg, (iadv- 

KVTjfllg, &c. 

III. Final V, vv, vp, and vg. 

I. Final v is short ; as, av, yovv, yXv/cv, Sdicpv, aorv. 

Exceptions. 

1 . The third person singular of the imperfect and second 
aorist of verbs in vfic ; as edi), e(j)v ; also the second 
person of the imperative in one of its forms ; as, dei- 
KVV, oiivv. 

2. The names of the letters fiv, vv, and fictitious words ; 
as, V, ypv, 

II. Final vv is short ; as, avv, rcoXvv, Ppadvv, ^evyvvv. 

Exceptions. 

1. The accusative of nouns which have vg in the nom- 
inative ; as, IXvv, IxOvv, iaxvv, d(l)pvv, fivv, 

2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; 
as, ^opKvv (otherwise (^opicvg) ; or vvog in the genitive ; 
as fioaavv. 

3. The first person singular of the imperfect and the sec- 
ond aorist of verbs in Vfit ; as, e(pvv, edvv, kdeinvvv, 
e^evyvvv. 

4. Nvv, " 7?oi(?," is long ; but vvv^ the enclitic, is for the 
most part short. It is long, however, on several oc- 
casions in tragedy, and always long in comedy.^ 

III. Final vp is long ; as, irvp, fidprvp. Yet, in the ob- 
lique cases, these make nvpog, uvpi ; fidprvpog, fidprvpc. 

IV. Final vg is short ; as, I3advg, fcopvg^ tt^^v^, npeadvg, 
papvg, o^vg. 

Exceptions, 

1. Nouns in vg, which have vog in the genitive ; as, dx- 

Xvg, IXvg, iX^^^-> vrjdvg, o(j)pvg, TrXrjdvg. 

1. Ellendt, however, Lex. Soph, s. v., maintains that vvv enclitic is 
never long. 



METRE. 



267 



2. Nouns which have two terminations in the nominative ; 
as, ^opfcvg. 

3. Monosyllables ; as, fj,vg, cvg. 

4. Terminations of verbs in vfjn ; as, decfcvvg (second 
person singular present), deiKvyq (participle), kddii' 
vvg, &c. 



OF FEET. 

I. A foot, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables, and is 
either simple or compound. 

II. Of the simple feet four are of two, and eight of three syllables. 

III. There are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. 



^ CQ* r Pyrrhich 
"03! Spondee 

^ "^ Iambus . 

^ L Trochee 



Tribrach 

Molosus 

Dactyl . 

Anapsest 

Bacchius 

Antibacchius 

Amphibrach 

Amphimacer 






w 



Simple Feet. 

two short syllables . . as, i^sog. 

two long syllables . . " ipvxv. 

one short and one long " -d-m. 

one long and one short *' acjfia. 

three short .... " 'KoTiefiog. 

three long .... *' EvxC)'^fj. 

one long and two short " otojidra. 

two short and one long " pdatXevg. 

one short and two long " dvaaael. 

two long and one short '* juavrev/id. 
one long between tw^o short " -d-dXaaad. 
one short between two long " dearror^g. 



t < 



" Choriambus . . 

Antispast . . . 

Ionic a majore 

Ionic a minore 

Paeon primus . . 

Paeon secundus 

Paeon tertius . . 

Paeon quartus . . 

Epitritus primus . 

Epitritus secundus 

Epitritus tertius . 

Epitritus quartus . 

Proceleusmaticus . 

Dispondaeus . . 

Biiambus . 
^ Ditrochaeus . . 

Dochmius . . . 



Compound Feet. 

. Trochee and Iambus 
. Iambus and Trochee 
. Spondee and Pyrrhich 
. Pyrrhich and Spondee 
. Trochee and Pyrrhich 
. Iambus and Pyrrhich 
. Pyrrhich and Trochee 
. Pyrrhich and Iambus 
Iambus and Spondee 
Trochee and Spondee 
Spondee and Iambus 
Spondee and Trochee 
Two Pyrrhichs . . 
Two Spondees . . 
Two Iambi . . . 
Two Trochees . . 



" n(j(f)po(jvvfj. 

" djLLdpTTJjUd. 
" KOGjirjTOpd. 

" irXeovsK.rfjg, 
" darpoXoyog. 
" dvd^Xog. 
*' dvdSr/jLLd. 
" ■d-eoyevfjg. 
" d[idpTC)7if}. 
" dvdpd(pdvT7Jg. 
" evpvadevTjg. 
" TiuSfjTTjpd. 
" TzoTCejiLog. 
** cvvdovTiEvaC). 
** eTTeardrfig. 
" dvoTvxfjfxd. 



Antispast and long syllable " d/xapT^/xdruv, 



268 DACTYLIC MEASURE. 

METRE. 

1. Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables 
and feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and in this sense it applies 
not only to an entire verse, but to a part of a verse, or any number of 
verses. 

2. But a metre^ in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet, 
and sometimes one foot only. 

3. There are nine principal metres ; viz., 1. Iambic ; 2. Trochaic ; 
3. Anapaestic ; 4. Dactylic ; 5. Choriambic ; 6. Antispastic ; 7. Ionic a 
majore ; 8. Ionic a minore ; 9. Pseonic. 

4. These names are derived from the feet which prevail in them. 
Each species of verse would seem originally to have been composed of 
those feet solely from which it derives its name ; and other feet, equal in 
time, were not admitted until afterward, and then only under certain re- 
strictions. 

5. It must be carefully noted, that two feet make a metre in the iam- 
bic, trochaic, and anapaestic measures, but that one foot constitutes a 
metre in all the rest. 

6. When a verse consists of one metre it is called monometer ; when 
it has two metres, dimeter; three metres, trimeter; four, tetrameter; 
five, pentameter ; six, hexameter ; seven, heptameter. 

7. From what has just been remarked, it follows that, in iambic, tro- 
chaic, and anapaestic verse, a monometer consists of two feet ; a dimeter 
of four ; a trimeter of six, &c. ; whereas, in all other kinds of verse, a 
monometer consists of one foot, a dimeter of two, a trimeter of three, &c. 

8. Verses are also denominated acatalectic when complete ; caialectic 
when they want a syllable at the end ; hrachycatalectic when they want 
two syllables at the end ; hyper catalcctic when they have a syllable over 
at the end ; and acephalous when they want a syllable at the beginning. 

9. The last syllable of a verse is common, except in anapaestic and 
greater Ionic measure. 

DACTYLIC MEASURE.! 

1. Dactylic hexameter, or heroic verse, is composed of six feet, the 
last of which must be a spondee, .while the fifth is almost always a dac- 
tyl. The first four may be either dactyls or spondees, at the option of 
the poet. Thus, 

yalav ofi [ ov Kal \ ttovtov dp \ (bpel \ 6' ovpavo | Oev vv^. 

2. Sometimes, in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, the 
1. A more enlarged view of the Greek metres is given in the author's Greek Prosody, 



IAMBIC MEASURE. 269 

spondee takes the place of the dactyl in the fifth foot, and the line is 
then called a spondaic one ; as, 

Q A;^r I ?i£v K£?iE \ al fxe At \ I ^XTil j [ivdrj | GdaOal. 

3. A short syllable in the beginning of a foot is often made long in 
epic poetry. The reason is, that, as the first syllable of the foot was pro- 
nounced with the rising inflection of the voice in heroic verse, so by pro- 
nouncing it, when short, with a sharper tone, it was brought nearer in 
sound to a long syllable, by which the deficiency in time was scarcely 
perceived. The following examples show a short csesural syllable made 
long at the beginning of a foot : 

vavXoxov I kg Titfiev \ a koI | rtg -d^ebg \ rjyefio \ vsvev. 

Svv' axog I utIt] | tov 6 6' ap \ a Tpo) | alv /leve \ aivuv. 

II. PENTAMETER. 

1 . This species of verse consists of two equal portions, each contain- 
ing two feet followed by a long syllable. 

2. The first two feet may be either dactyls or spondees, then comes 
a long syllable, to which succeed two dactyls, followed by another long 
syllable. Thus, 

epTzvXk I og keIt \ cu\\ ralg eTu \ Kuvtd \ al. 
ToXfid I ev (5' epXa | Oi || cnuTZEg d \ rjdovl \ alv. 

3. The pause always takes place after the long syllable in the middle 
of the verse, marked by the double line in the two examples just given. 

4. Another, but less correct^ mode of scanning pentameters is as fol- 
lows : the first and second feet either a dactyl or spondee, the third al- 
ways a spondee, the fourth and fifth anapaests ; as, 

ovTe TTod I uv dper \ rjg ov \ rt irdlala \ fWGvvrjg. | 

5. A dactylic hexameter and pentameter, alternately succeeding each 
other, form what is called elegiac verse. Thus, 

/ Kpfjval I al TCtBd | 6eg^ tX ize \ ^evydre ; | irov togov \ vdCbp ; 
Tig ^/lof I d^vd I ovg \\ eaSeoev | deTu. | ov ; 

III. IAMBIC MEASURE.! 

1. The only species of iambic verse which we will here consider is 
the trimeter acatalectic, called also senarius, from its containing six feet. 

2. In the trimeter the iambus is admitted into any one of the six 
places ; and, when all the feet are thus iambi, the verse is called a pure 
iambic one. 

1. Consult the larger Prosody. 
Z2 



270 ANAPiESTIC MEASURE. 

3. A pure iambic line, however, is not of so frequent occurrence 
among the tragic writers as what is called a mixed one, namely, where 
other feet are admitted besides the iambus. 

4. The reason why other feet were allowed to enter appears to have 
been, not only to lessen the difficulty of composing, but in order to re- 
move the monotonous and unpleasing effect of a succession of iambi, 
and also to impart more dignity and elevation to the style. 

5. The feet admissible into this measure, besides the iambus, are the 
spondee, dactyl, anapaest, and tribrach. The rules for their admission 
are as follows ; 

1. The spondee is allowed to enter into the uneven places, namely, 
the first, third, and fifth, and into no other. 

2. The dactyl is admitted into the first and third places only. 

3. The anapaest is admitted into the first place alone, except in the 
case of a proper name, when it may come into any place but the 
last, provided the anapaest be all contained within the proper name. 

4. The tribrach may come into any place but the last. 

6. The following lines may serve to illustrate some of these laws. 

o Trao" I L KTielv || 6g Old \ Xizovg \\ Kokov \ fievog. || 
ddfjg I GTevay ^fJ-olg koL \ yoolg \\ ttIovtZ^ | eral. \\ 
fifjT'' dpoT I ov avT II olc yijv \ dvl \\ eval \ Tcvd. || 
i^pVC I ^y^ II fJ'^v Tifjv I og- ol\\6e T* fj \ Beibv, \\ 
rerdpT \ ov Itttt \\ ofiedovr \ dweaT \\ elTiev \ Tzdrffp, \\ 
[ifjTpbg I Civyfiv \\ al nal \ izdrepd \\ adrd \ urdvelv. \\ 

7. The double mark in these lines, after every two feet, indicates 
what is called a metre ; it having been customary in reciting iambic 
verses to make a short pause after every second foot. Hence the name 
trimeter given to this species of lines, from their containing each three 
of these metres. 

IV. ANAPAESTIC MEASURE. 

1. The most common species of anapaestic verse is the dimeter. In 
a system of legitimate dimeters each metre should end with a word, and 
the system should end with a catalectic verse called the paroemiac, pre- 
ceded by a monometer acatalectic. 

3. This metre admits indiscriminately the dactyl and spondee for the 
anapaest. But an anapsest ought not to follow a dactyl, to avoid too 
many short syllables occurring together. 

3. In the catalectic verse, or paroemiac, which closes a system, the 
catalectic syllable should be preceded by an anapaest. There are, how- 
ever, some verses in which it is joined to a spondee. 



ANAPAESTIC MEASURE. 271 

4. The last syllable of a verse in this metre, with the exception of the 
paroemiac, is not common, but subject to the same laws of quantity as if 
it was found in any other part of the verse. 

5. The following is a system of anapaestic dimeters, closing with a 
paroemiac : 

el yap | fi' vtto yfjVy \\ vepdev \ r* atdov \\ 
Tov veKpo I deyfiovog \\ elg anep \ avrov \\ 
TdpTupov I TJKeVf II deGfiolg | akvrolg \\ 
dyplug I TzeTidaag^ \\C)g fir) \ re i^edg, \\ 
jLLTjre Tig \ dlXog \\rolo6' ene [yTjOet. \\ 
vvv 6' aid I epXov \\ Klvvyf/ j o TdXdg || 
exOpolg I smxdpr || a 'Ktizovd \ d. 



APPENDIX. 

EXCURSUS A. 

GREEK ALPHABET. 

1 . According to tradition, Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Plioe- 
nicia into Greece, to which Palamedes, at a subsequent period, added 
four more, namely, i9-, ^, 6^ Xi ^^^ Simonides, at a still later day, in- 
creased this number by other four, ^, t^, ip, o). 

3. The meaning of this tradition evidently is, that the Phoenician al- 
phabet was introduced into different parts of Greece in a more or less 
perfect shape ; that some tribes received all the letters, while others 
were content with sixteen ; that these last-mentioned tribes, however, 
gradually increased the number of alphabetical characters, by borrowing, 
at two different epochs, certain letters previously used in the more per- 
fect systems of other Grecian communities. 

3. The old sixteen, or primitive Cadmean letters, are supposed to 
have been the following, the v being assigned to its true place as the 
representative of the digamma, and being indicated by the old sign of 
the digamma, namely, F. 

ABPAEFIKAMNOnPST. 

4. A change, however, subsequently took place as regarded the in- 
troduction of T, which w^as formed from the Fav, or digamma, by split- 
ting its upper part. This new letter was then placed after the T, while 
the F itself was omitted. 

5. The lonians first adopted all the twenty-four letters, and of them 
first the Samians, from whom they were received by the Athenians ; but 
it w^as not till after the Peloponnesian War, in the archonship of Eucli- 
des (B.C. 403), that they were used in pubHc acts. Hence the twenty- 
four letters are called 'Iuviko. ypd/LL/Ltara, and the old sixteen 'Attlku 
ypufifiaTa. 

6. In the most ancient times, according to Pausanias (5, 25), the 
Greeks, like the Orientals, wrote from right to left. They soon began, 
however, to write the first line from the left to the right, in the second 
from the right to the left, and so on alternately. This was called jSov- 



274 APPENDIX. 

aTpo(l>Tj66vj from its resembling the mode in which the ox turns with the 
plough. So the laws of Solon were written. But, as early as the time 
of Herodotus, it was the established custom to write from left to right. 



EXCURSUS B. 

DIGAMMA.i 

1. The whole subject of the digamma rests on the following remark- 
able fact. A certain number of words beginning with a vowel, especially 
the pronoun ov, ol, e, and also eldo, iotKa, elTrelVy avaf, "ITitog, olvog, 
olKo^y ip-yovy iGoCy 'iKacjTOCy with their derivatives, have in Homer the 
hiatus so often before them, that, leaving these words out of the account, 
the hiatus, which is now so frequent in Homer, becomes extremely rare, 
and, in most of the remaining cases, can be easily and naturally accounted 
for. These same words have also, in comparison with others, an apos- 
trophe very seldom before them ; and, moreover, the immediately prece- 
ding long vowels and diphthongs are far less frequently rendered short 
than before other words. 

2. From an attentive examination of the subject, the illustrious Bent- 
ley was led to conclude, that the words before which these deviations 
from the usual rules of prosody took place, although beginning with a 
vowel, must have been pronounced at least, if not written, as if begin- 
ning with a consonant. He recollected that some ancient grammarians 
mentioned a letter as more particularly used by the Cohans or most an- 
cient Greeks ; and that its existence might be traced in the changes 
which some Latin words, derived from the ^olic Greek, had undergone ; 
as, olvoCf vinum ; ic, vis ; olKog^ vicus ; rjp, ver. The letter alluded to, 
which, from its form, has the name of digamma or double gamma (F), is 
yet to be seen in some ancient inscriptions and on coins ; and it supplies 
the data for resolving the cases of metrical difficulty, where the length- 
ening of a short syllable uniformly takes place before particular words. 

3. Let us examine some of the instances which are found at the very 
opening of the Iliad, 'kxpeidrig re ava^ avSpcJv {v. 7) ; 'AyajLts/ivovt 
r]v6avE -^vfiu {v. 24) ; 'k.'KbWi^vi uvaKri (i?. 36) ; 6 d' rjie vvktI koLKdg 
{v. 47) ; -^apGr/Gag iidla, sine {v. 85). In all these cases, according to 
the practice of the language in the days of Attic purity, the short vowel 
ought to have been elided before uva^y rjvdave^ &c. But if we write 
Yava^, Trjvdave, &c., or fancy the words pronounced wava^, wTjvdafUEy 
wewoLK6r, wetTTe^ &c., the difficulty will in a great degree disappear. 

1. Buttmann, Ausf. Gr. Sprachl. p. ^l.—ButtmanrC9 Larger Gr. Gr. p. 28, Rolh 
inson's transL—Maltby's Greek Gradus, p. xi., seg. 



APPENDIX. 275 

EXCURSUS C. 

ACCENTS. 

1 . In every polysyllabic word, one syllable is to be regarded as the 
fundamental or radical syllable, or, in other words, that which contains 
the principal idea of the word. The rest, on the contrary, which are 
prefixed or appended to the fundamental syllable in the formation of 
w^ords, are, in respect to the idea, of less weight. 

2. The ascendant importance of the fundamental syllable of a word is, 
in every independent language, indicated by a sharpened elevation of the 
voice in its pronunciation ; as, for example, du in duty, or set in beset. 

3. This elevation of the voice in pronouncing one syllable of a word 
is called the tone or accent {irpoGCjidia, accentus), which can occur only 
once in each word, and of itself is one and the same in all words, namely, 
the acute or elevated accent {TipoGi^dla b^ela, accentus acutus). As a 
sign for this, use is made of a stroke from right to left (') ; as, for exam- 
ple, l,6yog. 

4. In comparison with the accented or elevated syllable, all syllables 
of a word which a;fe not accented must be spoken with a depressed or 
unelevated accent {Trpoaudla (Sapeca, accentus gravis). This depressed 
or grave accent is represented by an opposite sign, namely, a stroke from 
left to right C') ; so that ?i6yog was in fact Tioyog. But, because every 
syllable of a word which has not the acute accent is necessarily to be 
spoken with the depressed tone, the sign for the grave is not used, but 
these syllables remain unmarked. 

5. As an indication of the proper grave, therefore, is unnecessary, its 
sign is used for another purpose, namely, to mark what is called the 
softened acute at the final syllable of words in a continued discourse, 
and of which mention will presently be made. 

6. If two vowels, the first of which has the acute, the second the 
grave, are united into one sound, this long sound receives a sign, which 
is formed by the union of those two, namely, ('^) or (") ; for which, how- 
ever, a twisted line (~) is more conveniently used,^ indicating that the 
accent is to be lengthened in the pronunciation {TrpocjaydLa Treptancofievrj, 
accentus circumflexus) ; as, for example, d^Xog for SieTiog, trw/za for Gobfia, 

Position of the Accents. 
In order to accentuate a Greek word correctly, it is necessary, 1. to 
determine the syllable on which the accent rests ; and, 2. to know the 
sign by which, according to the nature of that and the remaining sylla- 

1. In the Porsonian type a semicircular mark is employed ; as, auiia. 



276 APPENDIX. 

blcs of the word, the accent is to be indicated. Concerning these two 
points, we shall here briefly assign what admits of accurate definition. 

I. Determination of the accented syllable. 

1. A Greek word can have its tone or accent only on one of the last 
three syllables. 

2. In simple radical words (that is, those which are formed with a 
definite termination from an existing root, and not derived from a word 
already formed) the accent rests on the radical syllable ; thus, root /le/, 
whence leyu, ^^ I say ;'''* Xe^tc^ ^^ expression ;''^ Xoyogj ^^ speech.'*'' 

3. In words which are derived from others, either by a prefix or an 
appended termination, the accent usually rests on the supplemental part 
(because this, as the sign of distinction from the radical word, defines 
the idea) ; thus, from loyog is derived akoyog, " speechless ;" from Kap- 
Tzog^ ^^ fruity '' come aKapirog, ^^ fruitless y'''' and evuapizog^ *■'' fruitful f"* 
from Aeyw are derived TieKTogy " saidj^' and TieKreog, *' to he said;'''' from 
"Q-ripy *' an animal^'''' is derived ■^Tjplov, " a ivild beast. ''^ 

4. The nature of the final syllable has a decisive influence on the po- 
sition of the accent ; namely, if the final syllable of a word be long by 
nature, the accent cannot lie farther towards the beginning of the word 
than on the penultimate syllable. For a long syllable being equal to two 
short ones, if the accent were placed on the antepenult when the last 
syllable is long by nature, it would be placed, in fact, four places back 
from the end, whereas it can never go farther back than three. 

The following cases, however, are to be noted as exceptions from 
this last rule. 

1 . The cj which the Attic and Ionic dialects make use of in declen- 
sion for the of the other dialects has no influence on the posi- 
tion of the accent. It is right, therefore, to accentuate vnepirTie' 
og (Attic and Ionic for vTvepnTiEog) ; ptvoKepog, " a rhinoceros ;" 
Svvujueogj ^^ of power ;^^ 'Arpetdew, ^^ of Atrides.^^ 

2. The same exception holds good of the syllables ac and oi, as ter- 
minations in declension and conjugation. Hence we properly 
accentuate rpaTre^at, ^'■tables;'''' "kiyeraiy '■^it is said ;^^ ela<l>oi, 
^^ stags.'''' The termination of the third person singular of the 
optative, however, again forms an exception to this, and, being 
the result of contraction, is long as regards the accent. We are 
therefore to accentuate e/c^epoi, not eK(f)epoty from EK^epcj ; viktj- 
rratj not viKrjaaLy as the optative of vlkcccj.^ 

1. From these fundamental rules numerous exceptions are found in Greek, which 
aie best learned from actual reading and a good lexicon. 



APPENDIX. 277 

6. Some small words are so -unimportant of themselves, that, in dis- 
com*se, they almost unite their sound with the following word, and, there- 
fore, remain unaccented. These are the forms o, ^, ol, at, of the article, 
besides the prepositions slg or ef, kv or elv^ en or ef ; the conjunctions 
eU (^Cy and the negative ov, ovKy ovx- These are called arovay " torie- 
less,^^ or 7TpoK?iiTtKd, ^^ proclitic y Some of them, on a change of signi- 
fication or position, receive the acute, namely, 1. the adduced forms of 
the article, when used as pronouns ; 2. 6>f, when it either stands for ov- 
Tcoct *' thusy^^ " 50," or in the signification *' a*" or " Zz^e," is placed after 
the chief word ; as, KaKol wf, " as cowards^^ or " coward-like ; 3. oij or 
ovfc, when it directly denies, without an additional word, like the Eng- 
lish ** no," or is placed after the word which it negatives. 

II. Sign of the accent according to the nature of the syllables. 
If the syllable on which the tone rests is known, the question then is, 
with what sign it is to be accented. Concerning this the following rules 
obtain : 

1. The acute can stand on each of the last three syllables ; as, Aca/cof, 
*^ bad ;" vroAif, ** a city ,*" avOpoTroCy *' a many But it can stand on 
the third syllable from the end only when the last syllable is short by na- 
ture ; thus, avOp^TTOv, avOpcjTTG), avdpcjTTOtgj although the nominative is 
marked avdpuTzog} 

2. The circumflex can only stand on a syllable long by nature, and 
only on the final or penultimate syllable, but never on the penultimate 
unless the final syllable is short by nature ; thus, UepLfclTJc, '* Pericles ;" 
KaKOVy " of evil;''"' A^^pof, ^* space;'''' "kelne, ^^ leave.^^ On the contrary, 
TiUTzeiVy ** to leave ;" yet TislipaCj x^P^^j according to rule 2, ^ 4 of the 
previous head. 

3. The mark properly belonging to the grave accent appears only on 
the last syllable of words standing in a continued discourse, as a sign of 
the softened tone of the acute. Thus, avr/p, " a man ;" ayado^, " brave ;" 
but in connected discourse, avyp ayadbg ov (pevyet, '* a brave man fieeth 
not away^ 

4. The intimate connexion of discourse, which would be interrupted 
by the sharpened pronunciation of the acute on the final syllable of a 
word, alone renders necessary the transition of the acute into the grave. 
This change, therefore, must not take place before one of the greater 
signs of interpunction (period and colon) ; nor even before a comma, 
when it indicates a really distinct member of a proposition. But we 

1. For the double exception to the rule, that the acute can stand on the antepenult 
in case only of a short final syllable, see rule 2, <$) 4 of the previous head. 

Aa 



278 APPENDIX. 

also use the comma in assigning nearer definitions, and predicates, before 
relatives and before expositive or intentional particles, where evidently 
the internal connexion of the discourse must not be interrupted, and in 
this case, in Greek, the sign of the acute must not be placed on the final 
syllable before the comma. Thus, it is proper to write, tl de, yv XPW^- 
ra TzoXXa exv '^^^ '•> ^^^? i^ ^^^^ manner, ol /xev ayadot, ol 6e KaKoi, be- 
cause here is a perceptible caesura in the discourse ; but TraTT^p^ bg tduKe^ 
and £?ie-y€ TroA/ltt, ug, k. t, /I., because here no abrupt separation of the 
single members of the proposition occurs. 

5. If the third syllable from the end is accented, it always possesses 
the acute. 

6. If the final syllable is accented, it always bears the acute (or, in 
continued discourse, the grave), except when it arises by contraction, or 
forms the genitive and dative of the first two declensions, or belongs, as 
the termination, to adverbs in og. Thus, jSaailevg, " a king,^^ but /?a- 
aL?i,€c (contracted from jSaacTifi) ; KaKog^ Kauris naKov, KaKovg, but KaKov, 
KttKTJgy icaKOVf /ca/cw, KaKy, naKuv^ KaKolg (as genitive and dative of the 
first two declensions) ; Kanibg^ an adverb. 

7. Every dissyllabic word whose penult is long by nature, and followed 
by a short final syllable, is marked with a circumflex on the penult ; as, 
XPVfJ'O'i X^P^Ci '''^^X^Ci K-eladai. 

8. Words have denominations according to the position of the accent. 
If the final syllable bears the acute, the word is called an ozytone {b^v- 
Tovov), as, for example, KanSg ; if the circumflex, d. jperisjpome {ireptGncj- 
fjLevov)y as, noielv ; if the final syllable is unaccented, the word is a bar- 
yton {jiapvTovov). If the accent rests on the penult as an acute, the 
word is paroxyton (napo^vrovov), as, vofiog ; if as a circumflex, jproper- 
ispome {irpoTTeptaTrcj/ievov), as, acjjua ; and, lastly, if the acute stands on 
the third syllable from the end, the word is proparoxytone {npoTrapo^V' 
Tovov), as, avdpuTTog. 

III. Change of Accents. 

1. If a word possessing an accent experiences such a change, by de- 
clension, or conjugation, or composition, that either the number or meas- 
ure of its syllables is increased, the accent also is usually changed. 
These changes of the accent are of a threefold kind, namely : 

1. The accent remains on the syllable on which it stands, but is itself 
altered, and becomes, 

(A.) An acute from a circumflex ; as, trw/zarof, from oufia ; X^P^t 

from x^P^^ '■> fcet/Lteda, from Keladai. 
(B.) A circumflex from an acute ; as, (jtevye, from (jtevyu. 



APPENDIX. 279 

2. The accent advances towards the end of a word, 

(A.) If the word is increased by the annexation of syllables, so that 
the original accented syllable has more than two syllables between 
it and the end of the word ; as, avdpuTroiaif from avdpconog ; (Be- 
Tihcaij from jSi^^og ; mvovrcjv, from mvcj ; haTe7J\,£Gdriv, from 

(B.) If the word receives a termination which always or usually 
has the accent ; as, reTv^ug, T£TV(()ivatj TV(f)eigy Tervjujuivoc, all 
formed from tvtttg) ; ■O-TjpScy from -d-yp ; kloc, from Ktg^ &c. 

(C.) If, in the change of a word, the final syllable, which was be- 
fore short, becomes long ; as, avOpconoVj from avdpcjTrog ; sripoVy 
from erepog ; Trpayfidrov, from Trpdyfca. 

3. The accent is drawn back towards the beginning of a word. This 
takes place, 

(A.) If the word receives additions at the beginning, or if the cause 
is removed which held the accent on the penult ; as, IrvTrrov, 
IrvTrrf, from rvTrTu ; TracdevSj from TratSevo) ; a^i/lo^ , from (j)t?iog ; 
Gvvodog, from 666g. 

(B.) If, in dissyllable words, the final syllable, which should bear 
the accent, is dropped on account of a succeeding vowel ; as, ^rjfjb* 
kyu for <j>T]fii ; and iroTOC enaOov for TToXld ; Selv' erlrjv for 
deivd. 

But prepositions and particles, when the accented final vowel is 
dropped, remain unaccented ; as, ct^ avrov for kni \ Trap' kfioi 
for Tzapd ; dXk' kyu for aXkd ; ovd" bXtyov for ovdL 

IV. Recession of the accent to a preceding word. 

1. Several small words unite themselves so closely, in respect to 
sense, with the preceding word, that they must be blended with it, as it 
were, in pronunciation. For this reason they throw back their accent 
on the preceding word, and hence derive the name of enclitics (fiopta 

kyK?uCTCKd). 

2. Such enclitics are : the indefinite pronoun rif, W, through all the 
cases ; the oblique cases of the personal pronouns, jnov or fiev, fzoiy fie, 
GOV or GEVy Goiy ere, ov or ^o, and edev^ ol, e, /ziv, viv, G((>i, Gcpoe, G(pG)tv, 
(T(/>ewv, G^tai or gc^hglv^ and G(\>iv, Gcjtsag, G(l>ea ; together with the pres- 
ent indicative of elfzl and (bTj/biL (except the second person singular slg or 
el, " thou art ;" (pr/c, " thou sayst) ;" and, lastly, the adverbs and parti- 
cles TTCJf, no), TvoCj 'Krjy irovj Trade, Trodev, irore, ri, tol, ye, ke (or Kev\ 
^f/v, vv (or vvv), Trip, pa. 

3. All these words throw back their accent, as acute, on the last syl- 



280 APPENDIX. 

lable of the preceding word ; but the accentuation of that preceding word 
decides whether this accent must be expressed or not. Concerning this 
point the following rules must be observed : 

(A.) If the preceding word is accented on the first syllable, or is 
marked with the acute on the penult, the enclitic loses its accent 
without farther change of the preceding word ; yet it is evident 
that the grave becomes an acute, because, properly, the enclitic 
unites itself immediately to the preceding word, and the accent 
syllable is therefore no longer to be considered as standing at the 
end of a word. Thus, we write avrjp Tig (as if it were avrjprig) ;. 
ayadog te KaXog re ; ^iAw ae ; jLLadrjTuv rivuv, avdpa re, (jtikog 

fJLOV. 

But, in the last case, when the preceding word has an acute on the 
penult, dissyllabic enclitics retain their proper accent ; as, tjv 26- 
yog TTOTs kvavTLog G(f>iatv. 

(B.) If the preceding word is accented with a circumflex on the pe- 
nult, or an acute on the antepenult, the accent, thrown back 
from the enclitic, stands as an acute on the final syllable ; as, 
avdpQTTog ban 'd-vrirog ; 6 KpocGog ttote eXe^ev. 

If several enclitics follow one another, the preceding always takes 
the accent of the succeeding, and the last only remains unac- 
cented ; as, el rig rtvd (prjoi fiot irapstvat. 

(C.) The enclitic retains its accent (1.) in personal pronouns after 
a preposition ; as, Trspl aovj Trapa cot, Tzpog ae ; and, in this case, 
the longer forms of the pronoun of the first person, hfiov, kfioty 
kfiEy must always be used ; as, ef euov (not e/c fiov) ; kv kfcoc (not 
kv fioi). (2.) In the verb eGri (which then draws back its accent 
to the root), when it is used in the emphatic signification " there 
isj^^ " there exists^''"' " it is situated,'*^ or else stands followed by 
an infinitive, for e^eari, '•^ it is possible, ^^ '■^ it is permitted,''^ ^^ one 
can ;" as, for example, Qebg eoTLv, " there is a God ;" eanv ov- 
Tog, " it is so situated ;" eartv IdelVy " one can see^ 

4. From the enclitics adduced under ^ 2 must yet be distinguished 
the particles 6e and -&£ or i9^ev, which entirely lose their independence, 
and become incorporated with the preceding word. Strictly considered, 
in annexing these particles to a word, the given rules of inclination ought 
also to be observed. On the contrary, i9-e or '&ev is usually regarded as 
any other appended termination ; and thus we write oIkoOev, not oIkoOev 
(from oLKog). In the particle de, however, two cases are to be distin- 
guished ; thus, if it is annexed to forms of nouns, it has the same influ- 
ence as every other encUtic, and hence we write ohovde (from olKog\ 



APPENDIX. 281 

'XlSoc^e (from 'Aif), Sofiovde (from 66fj,og). But if it is annexed to de- 
monstrative pronouns, the accent of the principal word advances towards 
that of the particle, and passes into the syllable immediately before de ; 
as, rotjog 6e (from togoc), tococ 6e (from roiog). And this accent thus 
retains itself regularly through all the cases and forms ; consequently we 
write roGTjde^ Toaoids, roaovgde ; but TocovSe, roaipdsj roaydej roaolgde. 



EXCURSUS D. 

DIALECTS. 

1. Of the primitive language of the Greeks the most traces are left to 
us in their epic poems, the oldest monuments of the language of this 
people. The peculiar mode of speech observed in these is called the 
epic dialect. Its basis formed the old national language of the Greeks, 
which the poet, however, for his own purpose, variously modified and 
enriched. Its principal characteristic is a rhythmical harmony and a 
powerful fulness of tone. 

2. The epic dialect is expressed the most purely and in a perfect form 
in the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The rest formed themselves ac- 
cording to the model of these two, particularly of Homer. The most 
eminent of them are, Theognis and the other gnomic poets, Apollonius 
of Rhodes, the author of the poems extant under the names of Orpheus, 
Quintus Smyrnaeus, and Nonnus. 

3. Since the epic language was derived from the stores of the general 
national language, and variously enriched by the poet himself; since, 
moreover, the dialect found in the oldest epic remained in after times 
appropriated to this species of poetry, and thus was continually advanced 
in civilization and culture by new admixtures ; it is natural, therefore, 
that it should not appear as a complete and finished whole, but should 
betray in its single parts many deviations and irregularities. 

4. If the basis of the epic is the old primitive language of the Greeks, 
and the primitive contains all the germes of the subsequent development 
of a language, we may easily conceive how this dialect should evince 
divers traces of all the peculiarities which afterward were individually 
cultivated and retained in the single dialects. Thus, in epic occur .^o- 
lisms, Dorisms, Atticisms, and the like, as fundamental peculiarities of 
the Greek language. But it is erroneous to regard the epic language, 
on that account, as a mixture of all the dialects ; as, on the other hand, 
it is wrong to confound it with the Ionic, from the circumstance of its 
having many fundamental peculiarities in common with that dialect. 

Aa2 



282 APPENDIX. 

The same obtains of JEolisms, Dorisms, lonisms, and Atticisms in all 
cases where reference is made to them by grammarians and commenta- 
tors. 

6. The Hellenes, who migrated through Thrace into the country after- 
ward called Hellas, were divided into several tribes, whereof two, the 
Dorians and lonians, chiefly extended themselves. Each of these tribes 
cultivated an independent and peculiar character in language, as well as 
in manners and mode of life, and after their names we denominate the 
two principal dialects the Doric and Ionic. 

6. The Dorians, the most powerful of the Hellenic tribes, preserved 
their dialect, which was widely diffused as the common language in 
Hellas proper and the colonies, pure from foreign intermixture, but did 
little for the particular advancement of their language. Hence the Do- 
ric dialect exhibits the most harshness in its forms of words, and a flat- 
ness of tone from the frequent use of the dull sound A, a peculiarity 
termed in Greek izXareiaGfiog. Besides this dialect, the JEolic also was 
formed according to the model of antiquity, and had many peculiarities 
in common with the Doric, whence it was considered as a refined col- 
lateral form of the same, cultivated particularly for the use of the poets. 

7. The Doric and ^olic dialects became and continued to be the lan- 
guage of lyric and bucolic poetry. The character of the Doric is most 
purely expressed in the odes of Pindar ; while those of Alcaeus, Sappho, 
and Corinna exhibit rather the ^olic mode. The Doric is purer in the 
Idyls of Theocritus. In the lyric parts of the Attic tragedies also an ap- 
proach to the sound of the Doric dialect has been preserved. Fragments 
of the Pythagorean philosophy furnish the only specimens of Doric prose. 

8. Besides these, several dialects sprung up in the mouth of the peo- 
ple as individual varieties of the generally-diffused Doric dialect. But 
their peculiar character is, for the most part, known only from insulated 
expressions and short sentences, which are adduced in historians and 
comic poets. The most celebrated and extensive of them are the Laco- 
nian, Boeotian, and Thessalian dialects, and, next to these, the Sicilian. 

9. The lonians, driven from their settlements by the Dorians, betook 
themselves principally to Attica, and, when that barren country was un- 
able to support the multitude of inhabitants, to the opposite coast of 
Asia. Under the mild climate of Lesser Asia, the form oi their language 
became mild and soft, and nearly allied to the epic. Thus was devel- 
oped the Ionic dialect, the principal characteristic of which is a softness 
of expression, acquired from the frequency of vowels and the solution of 
harsh syllables by interposed sounds. Herodotus and Hippocrates wrote 
in this dialect. 

10. The numerous peculiarities common to the Ionic with the epio 



APPENDIX. 283 

dialect have occasioned the latter also to be denominated Ionic ; although 
with this distinction, that the appellation of Old Ionic is given to the epic, 
but to the Ionic that of New Ionic. 

11. The language of the lonians who remained behind in Attica pro- 
ceeded differently in its formation ; and hence arose a new dialect, the 
Atticy which observed an intermediate course between the Doric harsh- 
ness and Ionic softness, adopting a perfect rotundity in its forms of 
words, and the greatest pliancy in their construction. The political con- 
sequence and the high pitch of intellectual culture to which Athens ar- 
rived, gave a wide circulation to this dialect, and the considerable num- 
ber of eminent writings which are composed in it, and have been pre- 
served, determine it for the groundwork in the study of the Greek lan- 
guage. 

12. The most celebrated works written in the flourishing period of 
the Attic language and culture are, the historical books of Thucydides, 
the historical and philosophical writings of Xenophon, the philosophical 
books of Plato, and the orations of Demosthenes, ^schines, Lysias, 
Isocrates, &c., besides the tragedies of ^schylus, Sophocles, and Eu- 
ripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes. 

13. That peculiarity which the single Grecian states had preserved in 
language and manners disappeared with the general decline of their 
freedom. Athens, however, for a long time continued the chief seat of 
liberal information ; and the Attic dialect, as the purest and most widely 
diffused, became the court language of the now ruling Macedonians, and, 
by degrees, the general language of writing and the people. Hence it 
necessarily followed, that much of the old peculiarity of this dialect was 
sacrificed, and many innovations were introduced in expression and in- 
flexion. This language, formed on the basis of the Attic dialect, is 
comprehended under the name of the common dialect. The authors of 
this period, however, endeavoured to exhibit the Attic dialect pure and 
uncorrupted, according to the early models, although many peculiarities 
of more modern times are interspersed throughout their writings. Hence 
their style has received the appellation of the later Attic. 

14. Writers of this class are, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pausanias, 
Apollodorus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Strabo, Dionysius of Hali- 
carnassus, Lucian, -^lian, Arrian, &c. 

15. In Macedonia the Greek lang^^was mingled with much for- 
eign alloy; and, thus cor£,upted^it spread itself, with the extension of 
the Macedonian empire, over other barbaric nations. Hence arose what 
may be denominated the Macedonic dialect. 

16. Alexandrea was a colony of liberal information under the Mace- 
donian rulers. There a circle of learned men assembled together, and 



284 APPENDIX. 

made it their chief study to preserve the purity of the genuine Attic dia- 
lect by rejecting all modern accessions, although their style also fell 
short of the ancient models. But the Greek language underwent a pe- 
culiar reformation by the translators of the Old and the authors of the 
New Testament, who designated by Greek expressions things of orien- 
tal conception and application. As this style occurs only in the Scrip- 
tures and some Christian writers, it has been called the ecclesiastical di- 
alect, while others have preferred the epithet of Hellenistic.^ 

1 7. By degrees, the old Greek language, under the influence of various 
causes, so far degenerated in the mouth of the people, and was deformed 
by so much heterogeneous admixture, that it gave rise to the new Greek, 
which has almost entirely exchanged the primitive character of the old 
for that of the more modern tongues, and still continues, in ancient 
Greece, as the language of the country. 

1. From the Greek iWrjvii^etVj whence comes iWrjviarT'js^ as referring to one who 
speaks after the Greek manner, and, in the present case, to an Oriental trying t& 
speak Greek. 



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